Network Working Group Donald E. Eastlake, 3rd
OBSOLETES RFC 1750 Jeffrey I. Schiller
Steve Crocker
Expires June October 2004 April 2004 December 2003
Randomness Requirements for Security
---------- ------------ --- --------
<draft-eastlake-randomness2-05.txt>
<draft-eastlake-randomness2-06.txt>
Status of This Document
This document is intended to become a Best Current Practice.
Comments should be sent to the authors. Distribution is unlimited.
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Abstract
Security systems today are built on strong cryptographic algorithms that
foil pattern analysis attempts. However, the security of these
systems is dependent on generating secret quantities for passwords,
cryptographic keys, and similar quantities. The use of pseudo-random
processes to generate secret quantities can result in pseudo-
security. The sophisticated attacker of these security systems may
find it easier to reproduce the environment that produced the secret
quantities, searching the resulting small set of possibilities, than
to locate the quantities in the whole of the potential number space.
Choosing random quantities to foil a resourceful and motivated
adversary is surprisingly difficult. This document points out many
pitfalls in using traditional pseudo-random number generation
techniques for choosing such quantities. It recommends the use of
truly random hardware techniques and shows that the existing hardware
on many systems can be used for this purpose. It provides suggestions
to ameliorate the problem when a hardware solution is not available.
And it gives examples of how large such quantities need to be for
some applications.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to
(1) The authors of "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to
Provide Adequate Commercial Security" which is incorporated as
Appendix A.
(2) Peter Gutmann who has permitted the incorporation into this
replacement for RFC 1750
of material from is his paper "Software Generation of Practially Practically Strong
Random Numbers".
The following other persons (in alphabetic order) contributed
substantially to this document:
Tony Hansen, Sandy Harris Harris, Paul Hoffman, Russ Housley
The following persons (in alphabetic order) contributed to RFC 1750,
the predeceasor predecessor of this document:
David M. Balenson, Don T. Davis, Carl Ellison, Marc Horowitz,
Christian Huitema, Charlie Kaufman, Steve Kent, Hal Murray, Neil
Haller, Richard Pitkin, Tim Redmond, and Doug Tygar.
Table of Contents
Status of This Document....................................1
Abstract...................................................2
Abstract...................................................1
Acknowledgements...........................................2
Table of Contents..........................................3
1. Introduction............................................5
2. Requirements............................................6 General Requirements....................................6
3. Traditional Pseudo-Random Sequences.....................8
4. Unpredictability.......................................10
4.1 Problems with Clocks and Serial Numbers...............10
4.2 Timing and Content of External Events.................11
4.3 The Fallacy of Complex Manipulation...................11
4.4 The Fallacy of Selection from a Large Database........12
5. Hardware for Randomness................................13
5.1 Volume Required.......................................13
5.2 Sensitivity to Skew...................................13
5.2.1 Using Stream Parity to De-Skew......................14
5.2.2 Using Transition Mappings to De-Skew................15
5.2.3 Using FFT to De-Skew................................16
5.2.4 Using S-Boxes to De-Skew............................16
5.2.5 Using Compression to De-Skew........................17 De-Skew........................16
5.3 Existing Hardware Can Be Used For Randomness..........17
5.3.1 Using Existing Sound/Video Input....................17
5.3.2 Using Existing Disk Drives..........................18 Drives..........................17
5.4 Ring Oscillator Sources...............................18
6. Recommended Software Strategy..........................19
6.1 Mixing Functions......................................19
6.1.1 A Trivial Mixing Function...........................19
6.1.2 Stronger Mixing Functions...........................20
6.1.3 Diffie-Hellman as a Mixing Function.................21 Function.................22
6.1.4 Using a Mixing Function to Stretch Random Bits......22
6.1.5 Other Factors in Choosing a Mixing Function.........22 Function.........23
6.2 Non-Hardware Sources of Randomness....................23
6.3 Cryptographically Strong Sequences....................24
6.3.1 Traditional Strong Sequences........................24 Sequences........................25
6.3.2 The Blum Blum Shub Sequence Generator...............25 Generator...............26
6.3.3 Entropy Pool Techniques.............................26 Techniques.............................27
7. Key Generation Standards and Examples..................28
7.1 US DoD Recommendations for Password Generation........28
7.2 X9.17 Key Generation..................................28
7.3 DSS Pseudo-Random Number Generation...................29
7.4 X9.82 Pseudo-Random Number Generation.................30
7.5 The /dev/random Device under Linux....................29
More Table of Contents Device................................30
8. Examples of Randomness Required........................31 Required........................32
8.1 Password Generation..................................31 Generation..................................32
8.2 A Very High Security Cryptographic Key................32 Key................33
8.2.1 Effort per Key Trial................................32 Trial................................33
8.2.2 Meet in the Middle Attacks..........................32 Attacks..........................34
8.2.3 Other Considerations................................35
9. Conclusion.............................................34 Conclusion.............................................36
10. Security Considerations...............................34 Considerations...............................37
11. Intellectual Property Considerations......................34
Appendix: Minimal Secure Key Lengths Study................36
A.0 Abstract..............................................36
A.1. Encryption Plays an Essential Role in Protecting.....37
A.1.1 There is a need for information security............37
A.1.2 Encryption to protect confidentiality...............38
A.1.3 There are a variety of attackers....................39
A.1.4 Strong encryption is not expensive..................40
A.2. Brute-Force is becoming easier.......................40
A.3. 40-Bit Key Lengths Offer Virtually No Protection.....42
A.4. Even DES with 56-Bit Keys Is Increasingly Inadequate.43
A.4.1 DES is no panacea today.............................43
A.4.2 There are smarter avenues of attack than brute force44
A.4.3 Other algorithms are similar........................44
A.5. Appropriate Key Lengths for the Future --- A Proposal45
A.6 About the Authors.....................................47
A.7 Acknowledgement.......................................48 Considerations..................37
12. Appendix A: Changes from RFC 1750.....................38
13. Informative References....................................49 References................................39
Authors Addresses.........................................53 Addresses.........................................43
File Name and Expiration..................................53 Expiration..................................43
1. Introduction
Software cryptography is coming into wider use and is continuing to
spread, although there is a long way to go until it becomes
pervasive.
Systems like SSH, IPSEC, TLS, S/MIME, PGP, DNSSEC, Kerberos, etc. are
maturing and becoming a part of the network landscape [SSH, DNSSEC, IPSEC,
MAIL*, TLS]. TLS, DNSSEC]. By comparison, when the previous version of this
document [RFC 1750] was issued in 1994, about the only Internet
cryptographic security specification in the IETF was the Privacy
Enhanced Mail protocol [MAIL PEM].
These systems provide substantial protection against snooping and
spoofing. However, there is a potential flaw. At the heart of all
cryptographic systems is the generation of secret, unguessable (i.e.,
random) numbers.
For the present, the
The lack of generally available facilities for generating such
unpredictable numbers is an open wound in the design of cryptographic
software. For the software developer who wants to build a key or
password generation procedure that runs on a wide range of hardware,
the only safe strategy so far has been to force the local
installation to supply a suitable routine to generate random numbers. To say the least, this
This is an awkward, error-prone and unpalatable solution.
It is important to keep in mind that the requirement is for data that
an adversary has a very low probability of guessing or determining.
This can easily fail if pseudo-random data is used which only meets
traditional statistical tests for randomness or which is based on
limited range sources, such as clocks. Frequently such random
quantities are determinable by an adversary searching through an
embarrassingly small space of possibilities.
This Best Current Practice describes techniques for producing random
quantities that will be resistant to such attack. It recommends that
future systems include hardware random number generation or provide
access to existing hardware that can be used for this purpose. It
suggests methods for use if such hardware is not available. And it
gives some estimates of the number of random bits required for sample
applications.
2. General Requirements
A commonly encountered randomness requirement today is the user
password. This is usually a simple character string. Obviously, if a
password can be guessed, it does not provide security. (For re-
usable re-usable
passwords, it is desirable that users be able to remember the
password. This may make it advisable to use pronounceable character
strings or phrases composed on ordinary words. But this only affects
the format of the password information, not the requirement that the
password be very hard to guess.)
Many other requirements come from the cryptographic arena.
Cryptographic techniques can be used to provide a variety of services
including confidentiality and authentication. Such services are based
on quantities, traditionally called "keys", that are unknown to and
unguessable by an adversary.
In some cases, such as the use of symmetric encryption with the one
time pads [CRYPTO*] or the US Data Encryption Standard [DES] or Advanced
Encryption Standard [AES], the parties who wish to communicate
confidentially and/or with authentication must all know the same
secret key. In other cases, using what are called asymmetric or
"public key" cryptographic techniques, keys come in pairs. One key of
the pair is private and must be kept secret by one party, the other
is public and can be published to the world. It is computationally
infeasible to determine the private key from the public key and
knowledge of the public is of no help to an adversary.
[ASYMMETRIC, CRYPTO*] adversary [ASYMMETRIC].
[SCHNEIER, FERGUSON, KAUFMAN]
The frequency and volume of the requirement for random quantities
differs greatly for different cryptographic systems. Using pure RSA
[CRYPTO*], RSA,
random quantities are required only when the a new key pair is
generated, but generated;
thereafter any number of messages can be signed without a further
need for randomness. The public key Digital Signature Algorithm
devised by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) requires good random numbers for each signature [DSS]. And
encrypting with a one time pad, in principle the strongest possible
encryption technique, requires a volume of randomness equal to all
the messages to be processed [CRYPTO*]. processed. [SCHNEIER, FERGUSON, KAUFMAN]
In most of these cases, an adversary can try to determine the
"secret" key by trial and error. (This is possible as long as the key
is enough smaller than the message that the correct key can be
uniquely identified.) The probability of an adversary succeeding at
this must be made acceptably low, depending on the particular
application. The size of the space the adversary must search is
related to the amount of key "information" present in the information
theoretic sense [SHANNON]. This depends on the number of different
secret values possible and the probability of each value as follows:
-----
\
Bits-of-info
Bits-of-information = \ - p * log ( p )
/ i 2 i
/
-----
where i counts from 1 to the number of possible secret values and p
sub i is the probability of the value numbered i. (Since p sub i is
less than one, the log will be negative so each term in the sum will
be non-negative.)
If there are 2^n different values of equal probability, then n bits
of information are present and an adversary would, on the average,
have to try half of the values, or 2^(n-1) , before guessing the
secret quantity. If the probability of different values is unequal,
then there is less information present and fewer guesses will, on
average, be required by an adversary. In particular, any values that
the adversary can know are impossible, or are of low probability, can
be initially ignored by an adversary, who will search through the
more probable values first.
For example, consider a cryptographic system that uses 128 bit keys.
If these 128 bit keys are derived by using a fixed pseudo-random
number generator that is seeded with an 8 bit seed, then an adversary
needs to search through only 256 keys (by running the pseudo-random
number generator with every possible seed), not the 2^128 keys that
may at first appear to be the case. Only 8 bits of "information" are
in these 128 bit keys.
3. Traditional Pseudo-Random Sequences
Most traditional sources of random numbers use deterministic sources
of "pseudo-random" numbers. These typically start with a "seed"
quantity and use numeric or logical operations to produce a sequence
of values.
[KNUTH] has a classic exposition on pseudo-random numbers.
Applications he mentions are simulation of natural phenomena,
sampling, numerical analysis, testing computer programs, decision
making, and games. None of these have the same characteristics as the
sort of security uses we are talking about. Only in the last two
could there be an adversary trying to find the random quantity.
However, in these cases, the adversary normally has only a single
chance to use a guessed value. In guessing passwords or attempting to
break an encryption scheme, the adversary normally has many, perhaps
unlimited, chances at guessing the correct value because they value. They can store the
message they are trying to break and repeatedly attack it. They should are
also be assumed to be aided by a computer.
For testing the "randomness" of numbers, Knuth suggests a variety of
measures including statistical and spectral. These tests check things
like autocorrelation between different parts of a "random" sequence
or distribution of its values. But they could be met by a constant
stored random sequence, such as the "random" sequence printed in the
CRC Standard Mathematical Tables [CRC]. Despite meeting all the tests
suggested by Knuth, that sequence is unsuitable for cryptographic use
as adversaries must be assumed to have copies of all common published
"random" sequences and will able to spot the source and predict
future values.
A typical pseudo-random number generation technique, known as a
linear congruence pseudo-random number generator, is modular
arithmetic where the value numbered N+1 is calculated from the value
numbered N by
V = ( V * a + b )(Mod c)
N+1 N
The above technique has a strong relationship to linear shift
register pseudo-random number generators, which are well understood
cryptographically [SHIFT*]. In such generators bits are introduced at
one end of a shift register as the Exclusive Or (binary sum without
carry) of bits from selected fixed taps into the register. For
example:
+----+ +----+ +----+ +----+
| B | <-- | B | <-- | B | <-- . . . . . . <-- | B | <-+
| 0 | | 1 | | 2 | | n | |
+----+ +----+ +----+ +----+ |
| | | |
| | V +-----+
| V +----------------> | |
V +-----------------------------> | XOR |
+---------------------------------------------------> | |
+-----+
V = ( ( V * 2 ) + B .xor. B ... )(Mod 2^n)
N+1 N 0 2
The goodness of traditional pseudo-random number generator algorithms
is measured by statistical tests on such sequences. Carefully chosen
values of the initial V and a, b, c, and c initial V or the placement of shift register tap
in the above simple processes can produce excellent statistics.
These sequences may be adequate in simulations (Monte Carlo
experiments) as long as the sequence is orthogonal to the structure
of the space being explored. Even there, subtle patterns may cause
problems. However, such sequences are clearly bad for use in security
applications. They are fully predictable if the initial state is
known. Depending on the form of the pseudo-random number generator,
the sequence may be determinable from observation of a short portion
of the sequence [CRYPTO*, [SCHNEIER, STERN]. For example, with the generators
above, one can determine V(n+1) given knowledge of V(n). In fact, it
has been shown that with these techniques, even if only one bit of
the pseudo-random values are released, the seed can be determined
from short sequences.
Not only have linear congruent generators been broken, but techniques
are now known for breaking all polynomial congruent generators.
[KRAWCZYK]
4. Unpredictability
Randomness
Statistically tested randomness in the traditional sense described in
section 3 is NOT the same as the unpredictability required for
security use.
For example, use of a widely available constant sequence, such as
that from the CRC tables, is very weak against an adversary. Once
they learn of or guess it, they can easily break all security, future
and past, based on the sequence. [CRC] Yet the statistical properties
of these tables are good.
The following sections describe the limitations of some randomness
generation techniques and sources.
4.1 Problems with Clocks and Serial Numbers
Computer clocks, or similar operating system or hardware values,
provide significantly fewer real bits of unpredictability than might
appear from their specifications.
Tests have been done on clocks on numerous systems and it was found
that their behavior can vary widely and in unexpected ways. One
version of an operating system running on one set of hardware may
actually provide, say, microsecond resolution in a clock while a
different configuration of the "same" system may always provide the
same lower bits and only count in the upper bits at much lower
resolution. This means that successive reads on the clock may produce
identical values even if enough time has passed that the value
"should" change based on the nominal clock resolution. There are also
cases where frequently reading a clock can produce artificial
sequential values because of extra code that checks for the clock
being unchanged between two reads and increases it by one! Designing
portable application code to generate unpredictable numbers based on
such system clocks is particularly challenging because the system
designer does not always know the properties of the system clocks
that the code will execute on.
Use of a hardware serial number numbers such as an Ethernet address addresses may also
provide fewer bits of uniqueness than one would guess. Such
quantities are usually heavily structured and subfields may have only
a limited range of possible values or values easily guessable based
on approximate date of manufacture or other data. For example, it is
likely that a company that manfactures manufactures both computers and Ethernet
adapters will, at least internally, use its own adapters, which
significantly limits the range of built in built-in addresses.
Problems such as those described above related to clocks and serial
numbers make code to produce unpredictable quantities difficult if
the code is to be ported across a variety of computer platforms and
systems.
4.2 Timing and Content of External Events
It is possible to measure the timing and content of mouse movement,
key strokes, and similar user events. This is a reasonable source of
unguessable data with some qualifications. On some machines, inputs
such as key strokes are buffered. Even though the user's inter-
keystroke timing may have sufficient variation and unpredictability,
there might not be an easy way to access that variation. Another
problem is that no standard method exists to sample timing details.
This makes it hard to build standard software intended for
distribution to a large range of machines based on this technique.
The amount of mouse movement or the keys actually hit are usually
easier to access than timings but may yield less unpredictability as
the user may provide highly repetitive input.
Other external events, such as network packet arrival times, can also
be used used, with care. In particular, the possibility of manipulation of
such times by an adversary and the lack of history on at system start up
must be considered.
4.3 The Fallacy of Complex Manipulation
One strategy which may give a misleading appearance of
unpredictability is to take a very complex algorithm (or an excellent
traditional pseudo-random number generator with good statistical
properties) and calculate a cryptographic key by starting with
limited data such as the
current value of a computer system clock value as the seed. An
adversary who knew roughly when the generator was started would have
a relatively small number of seed values to test as they would know
likely values of the system clock. Large numbers of pseudo-random
bits could be generated but the search space an adversary would need
to check could be quite small.
Thus very strong and/or complex manipulation of data will not help if
the adversary can learn what the manipulation is and there is not
enough unpredictability in the starting seed value. Even if they They can
not learn what the manipulation is, they may be able to usually
use the limited number of results stemming from a limited number of
seed values to defeat security.
Another serious strategy error is to assume that a very complex
pseudo-random number generation algorithm will produce strong random
numbers when there has been no theory behind or analysis of the
algorithm. There is a excellent example of this fallacy right near
the beginning of chapter Chapter 3 in [KNUTH] where the author describes a
complex algorithm. It was intended that the machine language program
corresponding to the algorithm would be so complicated that a person
trying to read the code without comments wouldn't know what the
program was doing. Unfortunately, actual use of this algorithm showed
that it almost immediately converged to a single repeated value in
one case and a small cycle of values in another case.
Not only does complex manipulation not help you if you have a limited
range of seeds but blindly chosen complex manipulation can destroy
the randomness in a good seed!
4.4 The Fallacy of Selection from a Large Database
Another strategy that can give a misleading appearance of
unpredictability is selection of a quantity randomly from a database
and assume that its strength is related to the total number of bits
in the database. For example, typical USENET servers process many
megabytes of information per day. day [USENET]. Assume a random quantity
was selected by fetching 32 bytes of data from a random starting
point in this data. This does not yield 32*8 = 256 bits worth of
unguessability. Even after allowing that much of the data is human
language and probably has no more than 2 or 3 bits of information per
byte, it doesn't yield 32*2 = 64 bits of unguessability. For an
adversary with access to the same usenet database the unguessability
rests only on the starting point of the selection. That is perhaps a
little over a couple of dozen bits of unguessability.
The same argument applies to selecting sequences from the data on a
publicly available CD/DVD recording or any other large public
database. If the adversary has access to the same database, this
"selection from a large volume of data" step buys very little. However,
if a selection can be made from data to which the adversary has no
access, such as system buffers on an active multi-user system, it may
be of help.
5. Hardware for Randomness
Is there any hope for true strong portable randomness in the future?
There might be. All that's needed is a physical source of
unpredictable numbers.
A thermal noise (sometimes called Johnson noise in integrated
circuits) or radioactive decay source and a fast, free-running
oscillator would do the trick directly [GIFFORD]. This is a trivial
amount of hardware, and could easily be included as a standard part
of a computer system's architecture. Furthermore, any system with a
spinning disk or ring oscillator and a stable (crystal) time source
or the like has an adequate source of randomness ([DAVIS] and Section
5.4). All that's needed is the common perception among computer
vendors that this small additional hardware and the software to
access it is necessary and useful.
5.1 Volume Required
How much unpredictability is needed? Is it possible to quantify the
requirement in, say, number of random bits per second?
The answer is not very much is needed. For AES, the key can be 128
bits and, as we show in an example in Section 8, even the highest
security system is unlikely to require a strong keying material of much
over 200 bits. If a series of keys are needed, they can be generated
from a strong random seed (starting value) using a cryptographically
strong sequence as explained in Section 6.3. A few hundred random
bits generated at start up or once a day would be enough using such
techniques. Even if the random bits are generated as slowly as one
per second and it is not possible to overlap the generation process,
it should be tolerable in most high security applications to wait 200
seconds occasionally.
These numbers are trivial to achieve. It could be done by a person
repeatedly tossing a coin. Almost any hardware based process is
likely to be much faster.
5.2 Sensitivity to Skew
Is there any specific requirement on the shape of the distribution of
the random numbers? The good news is the distribution need not be
uniform. All that is needed is a conservative estimate of how non-
uniform it is to bound performance. Simple techniques to de-skew the
bit stream are given below and stronger cryptographic techniques are mentioned
described in Section 6.1.2 below.
5.2.1 Using Stream Parity to De-Skew
Consider taking a sufficiently long string of bits and map the string
to "zero" or "one". The mapping will not yield a perfectly uniform
distribution, but it can be as close as desired. One mapping that
serves the purpose is to take the parity of the string. This has the
advantages that it is robust across all degrees of skew up to the
estimated maximum skew and is absolutely trivial to implement in
hardware.
The following analysis gives the number of bits that must be sampled:
Suppose the ratio of ones to zeros is ( 0.5 + e : ) to ( 0.5 - e, e ),
where e is between 0 and 0.5 and is a measure of the "eccentricity"
of the distribution. Consider the distribution of the parity function
of N bit samples. The probabilities that the parity will be one or
zero will be the sum of the odd or even terms in the binomial
expansion of (p + q)^N, where p = 0.5 + e, the probability of a one,
and q = 0.5 - e, the probability of a zero.
These sums can be computed easily as
N N
1/2 * ( ( p + q ) + ( p - q ) )
and
N N
1/2 * ( ( p + q ) - ( p - q ) ).
(Which one corresponds to the probability the parity will be 1
depends on whether N is odd or even.)
Since p + q = 1 and p - q = 2e, these expressions reduce to
N
1/2 * [1 + (2e) ]
and
N
1/2 * [1 - (2e) ].
Neither of these will ever be exactly 0.5 unless e is zero, but we
can bring them arbitrarily close to 0.5. If we want the probabilities
to be within some delta d of 0.5, i.e. then
N
( 0.5 + ( 0.5 * (2e) ) ) < 0.5 + d.
Solving for N yields N > log(2d)/log(2e). (Note that 2e is less than
1, so its log is negative. Division by a negative number reverses the
sense of an inequality.)
The following table gives the length of the string which must be
sampled for various degrees of skew in order to come within 0.001 of
a 50/50 distribution.
+---------+--------+-------+
| Prob(1) | e | N |
+---------+--------+-------+
| 0.5 | 0.00 | 1 |
| 0.6 | 0.10 | 4 |
| 0.7 | 0.20 | 7 |
| 0.8 | 0.30 | 13 |
| 0.9 | 0.40 | 28 |
| 0.95 | 0.45 | 59 |
| 0.99 | 0.49 | 308 |
+---------+--------+-------+
The last entry shows that even if the distribution is skewed 99% in
favor of ones, the parity of a string of 308 samples will be within
0.001 of a 50/50 distribution.
5.2.2 Using Transition Mappings to De-Skew
Another technique, originally due to von Neumann [VON NEUMANN], is to
examine a bit stream as a sequence of non-overlapping pairs. You
could then discard any 00 or 11 pairs found, interpret 01 as a 0 and
10 as a 1. Assume the probability of a 1 is 0.5+e and the probability
of a 0 is 0.5-e where e is the eccentricity of the source and
described in the previous section. Then the probability of each pair
is as follows:
+------+-----------------------------------------+
| pair | probability |
+------+-----------------------------------------+
| 00 | (0.5 - e)^2 = 0.25 - e + e^2 |
| 01 | (0.5 - e)*(0.5 + e) = 0.25 - e^2 |
| 10 | (0.5 + e)*(0.5 - e) = 0.25 - e^2 |
| 11 | (0.5 + e)^2 = 0.25 + e + e^2 |
+------+-----------------------------------------+
This technique will completely eliminate any bias but at the expense
of taking an indeterminate number of input bits for any particular
desired number of output bits. The probability of any particular pair
being discarded is 0.5 + 2e^2 so the expected number of input bits to
produce X output bits is X/(0.25 - e^2).
This technique assumes that the bits are from a stream where each bit
has the same probability of being a 0 or 1 as any other bit in the
stream and that bits are not correlated, i.e., that the bits are
identical independent distributions. If alternate bits were from two
correlated sources, for example, the above analysis breaks down.
The above technique also provides another illustration of how a
simple statistical analysis can mislead if one is not always on the
lookout for patterns that could be exploited by an adversary. If the
algorithm were mis-read slightly so that overlapping successive bits
pairs were used instead of non-overlapping pairs, the statistical
analysis given is the same; however, instead of providing an unbiased
uncorrelated series of random 1's and 0's, it instead produces a
totally predictable sequence of exactly alternating 1's and 0's.
5.2.3 Using FFT to De-Skew
When real world data consists of strongly biased or correlated bits,
it may still contain useful amounts of randomness. This randomness
can be extracted through use of the discrete Fourier transform or its
optimized variant, the FFT.
Using the Fourier transform of the data, strong correlations can be
discarded. If adequate data is processed and remaining correlations
decay, spectral lines approaching statistical independence and
normally distributed randomness can be produced [BRILLINGER].
5.2.4 Using S-Boxes to De-Skew
Many modern block encryption functions, including DES and AES,
incorporate modules known as S-Boxes (substitution boxes). These
produce a smaller number of outputs from a larger number of inputs
through a complex non-linear mixing function which would have the
effect of concentrating limited entropy in the inputs into the
output.
S-Boxes sometimes incorporate bent boolean functions which are
functions of an even number of bits producing one output bit with
maximum non-linearity. Looking at the output for all input pairs
differing in any particular bit position, exactly half the outputs
are different.
An S-Box in which each output bit is produced by a bent function such
that any linear combination of these functions is also a bent
function is called a "perfect S-Box". Repeated application or
cascades of such boxes can be used to de-skew. [SBOX*]
5.2.5 Using Compression to De-Skew
Reversible compression techniques also provide a crude method of de-
skewing a skewed bit stream. This follows directly from the
definition of reversible compression and the formula in Section 2
above for the amount of information in a sequence. Since the
compression is reversible, the same amount of information must be
present in the shorter output than was present in the longer input.
By the Shannon information equation, this is only possible if, on
average, the probabilities of the different shorter sequences are
more uniformly distributed than were the probabilities of the longer
sequences. Thus Therefore the shorter sequences must be de-skewed relative
to the input.
However, many compression techniques add a somewhat predictable
preface to their output stream and may insert such a sequence again
periodically in their output or otherwise introduce subtle patterns
of their own. They should be considered only a rough technique
compared with those described above or in Section 6.1.2. At a
minimum, the beginning of the compressed sequence should be skipped
and only later bits used for applications requiring random bits.
5.3 Existing Hardware Can Be Used For Randomness
As described below, many computers come with hardware that can, with
care, be used to generate truly random quantities.
5.3.1 Using Existing Sound/Video Input
Increasingly
Many computers are being built with inputs that digitize some real world
analog source, such as sound from a microphone or video input from a
camera. Under appropriate circumstances, such input can provide
reasonably high quality random bits. The "input" from a sound
digitizer with no source plugged in or a camera with the lens cap on,
if the system has enough gain to detect anything, is essentially
thermal noise.
For example, on a SPARCstation, some UNIX based systems, one can read from the
/dev/audio device with nothing plugged into the microphone jack. jack or
the microphone receiving only low level background noise. Such data
is essentially random noise although it should not be trusted without
some checking in case of hardware failure. It will, in any case, need
to be de-skewed as described elsewhere.
Combining this with compression to de-skew one can, in UNIXese,
generate a huge amount of medium quality random data by doing
cat /dev/audio | compress - >random-bits-file
5.3.2 Using Existing Disk Drives
Disk drives have small random fluctuations in their rotational speed
due to chaotic air turbulence [DAVIS]. By adding low level disk seek
time instrumentation to a system, a series of measurements can be
obtained that include this randomness. Such data is usually highly
correlated so that significant processing is needed, such as FFT (see
section 5.2.3). Nevertheless experimentation has shown that, with
such processing, most disk drives easily produce 100 bits a minute or
more of excellent random data.
Partly offsetting this need for processing is the fact that disk
drive failure will normally be rapidly noticed. Thus, problems with
this method of random number generation due to hardware failure are
unlikely.
5.4 Ring Oscillator Sources
If an integrated circuit is being designed or field programmed, an
odd number of gates can be connected in series to produce a free-
running ring oscillator. By sampling a point in the ring at a
precise fixed
frequency, say one determined by a stable crystal
oscialltor, oscillator, some
amount of entropy can be extracted due to slight variations in the
free-running osciallator.
Such bits oscillator timing. It is possible to increase the rate
of entropy by xor'ing sampled values from a few ring oscillators with
relatively prime lengths. Another possibility is to sample the output
of a noisy diode.
Bits from such sources will have to be heavily de-skewed de-skewed, as disk
rotation timings must be (Section 5.3.2). An engineering study would
be needed to determine the amount of entropy being produced depending
on the particular design. It may be possible to increase the rate of entropy
by xor'ing sampled values from a few ring osciallators with
relatively prime lengths or the like. In any case, this these can be a
good, medium speed source good sources
whose cost is a trivial number amount of gates hardware by modern standards.
As an example, IEEE 802.11 suggests that circuit below be considered
with due attention in the design to isolation of the rings from each
other and from clocked circuits to avoid undesired synchronization,
etc., and extensive post processing. [IEEE 802.11i]
|\ |\ |\
+-->| >0-->| >0-- 19 total --| >0--+-------+
| |/ |/ |/ | |
| | |
+----------------------------------+ V
+-----+
|\ |\ |\ | | output
+-->| >0-->| >0-- 23 total --| >0--+--->| XOR |------>
| |/ |/ |/ | | |
| | +-----+
+----------------------------------+ ^ ^
| |
|\ |\ |\ | |
+-->| >0-->| >0-- 29 total --| >0--+------+ |
| |/ |/ |/ | |
| | |
+----------------------------------+ |
|
other randomness if available--------------+
6. Recommended Software Strategy
What is the best overall strategy for meeting the requirement for
unguessable random numbers in the absence of a reliable hardware
source? It is to obtain random input from a number of uncorrelated
sources and to mix them with a strong mixing function. Such a
function will preserve the randomness present in any of the sources
even if other quantities being combined happen to be fixed or easily
guessable. This may be advisable even with a good hardware source, as
hardware can also fail, though this should be weighed against any
increase in the chance of overall failure due to added software
complexity.
6.1 Mixing Functions
A strong mixing function is one which combines two or more inputs and
produces an output where each output bit is a different complex non-
linear function of all the input bits. On average, changing any input
bit will change about half the output bits. But because the
relationship is complex and non-linear, no particular output bit is
guaranteed to change when any particular input bit is changed.
Consider the problem of converting a stream of bits that is skewed
towards 0 or 1 or which has a somewhat predictable pattern to a
shorter stream which is more random, as discussed in Section 5.2
above. This is simply another case where a strong mixing function is
desired, mixing the input bits to produce a smaller number of output
bits. The technique given in Section 5.2.1 of using the parity of a
number of bits is simply the result of successively Exclusive Or'ing
them which is examined as a trivial mixing function immediately
below. Use of stronger mixing functions to extract more of the
randomness in a stream of skewed bits is examined in Section 6.1.2.
6.1.1 A Trivial Mixing Function
A trivial example for single bit inputs is the Exclusive Or function,
which is equivalent to addition without carry, as show in the table
below. This is a degenerate case in which the one output bit always
changes for a change in either input bit. But, despite its
simplicity, it will still provide provides a useful illustration.
+-----------+-----------+----------+
| input 1 | input 2 | output |
+-----------+-----------+----------+
| 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 |
+-----------+-----------+----------+
If inputs 1 and 2 are uncorrelated and combined in this fashion then
the output will be an even better (less skewed) random bit than the
inputs. If we assume an "eccentricity" e as defined in Section 5.2
above, then the output eccentricity relates to the input eccentricity
as follows:
e = 2 * e * e
output input 1 input 2
Since e is never greater than 1/2, the eccentricity is always
improved except in the case where at least one input is a totally
skewed constant. This is illustrated in the following table where the
top and left side values are the two input eccentricities and the
entries are the output eccentricity:
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| e | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.50 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.10 |
| 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.16 | 0.20 |
| 0.30 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 0.30 |
| 0.40 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.32 | 0.40 |
| 0.50 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 0.50 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
However, keep in mind that the above calculations assume that the
inputs are not correlated. If the inputs were, say, the parity of the
number of minutes from midnight on two clocks accurate to a few
seconds, then each might appear random if sampled at random intervals
much longer than a minute. Yet if they were both sampled and combined
with xor, the result would be zero most of the time.
6.1.2 Stronger Mixing Functions
The US Government Advanced Encryption Standard [AES] is an example of
a strong mixing function for multiple bit quantities. It takes up to
384 bits of input (128 bits of "data" and 256 bits of "key") and
produces 128 bits of output each of which is dependent on a complex
non-linear function of all input bits. Other encryption functions
with this characteristic, such as [DES], can also be used by
considering them to mix all of their key and data input bits.
Another good family of mixing functions are the "message digest" or
hashing functions such as The US Government Secure Hash Standards
[SHA*] and the MD4, MD5 [MD4, MD5] series. These functions all take
an arbitrary a
practically unlimited amount of input and produce an a relatively short
fixed length output mixing all the input bits. The MD* series produce
128 bits of output, SHA-1 produces 160 bits, and other SHA functions
produce larger numbers of up to 512 bits.
Although the message digest functions are designed for variable
amounts of input, AES and other encryption functions can also be used
to combine any number of inputs. If 128 bits of output is adequate,
the inputs can be packed into a 128 bit 128-bit data quantity and successive
AES keys, padding with zeros if needed, which are then used to
successively encrypt using AES in Electronic Codebook Mode [DES
MODES]. Mode. Or the
input could be packed into one 128-bit key and multiple data blocks
and a CBC-MAC calculated [MODES].
If more than 128 bits of output are needed, use more complex mixing.
But keep in mind that it is absolutely impossible to get more bits of
"randomness" out than are put in. For example, if inputs are packed
into three quantities, A, B, and C, use AES to encrypt A with B as a
key and then with C as a key to produce the 1st part of the output,
then encrypt B with C and then A for more output and, if necessary,
encrypt C with A and then B for yet more output. Still more output
can be produced by reversing the order of the keys given above to
stretch things. The same can be done with the hash functions by
hashing various subsets of the input data or different copies of the
input data with different prefixes and/or suffixes to produce
multiple outputs. But keep
Many modern block encryption functions, including DES and AES,
incorporate modules known as S-Boxes (substitution boxes). These
produce a smaller number of outputs from a larger number of inputs
through a complex non-linear mixing function which would have the
effect of concentrating limited entropy in mind the inputs into the
output.
S-Boxes sometimes incorporate bent boolean functions (functions of an
even number of bits producing one output bit with maximum non-
linearity). Looking at the output for all input pairs differing in
any particular bit position, exactly half the outputs are different.
An S-Box in which each output bit is produced by a bent function such
that it any linear combination of these functions is
impossible to get more bits also a bent
function is called a "perfect S-Box".
S-boxes and various repeated application or cascades of "randomness" out than are put in. such boxes
can be used for mixing. [SBOX*]
An example of using a strong mixing function would be to reconsider
the case of a string of 308 bits each of which is biased 99% towards
zero. The parity technique given in Section 5.2.1 above reduced this
to one bit with only a 1/1000 deviance from being equally likely a
zero or one. But, applying the equation for information given in
Section 2, this 308 bit skewed sequence has over 5 bits of
information in it. Thus hashing it with SHA-1 and taking the bottom 5
bits of the result would yield 5 unbiased random bits as opposed to
the single bit given by calculating the parity of the string.
6.1.3 Diffie-Hellman as a Mixing Function
Diffie-Hellman exponential key exchange is a technique that yields a
shared secret between two parties that can be made computationally
infeasible for a third party to determine even if they can observe
all the messages between the two communicating parties. This shared
secret is a mixture of initial quantities generated by each of them
[D-H]. If these initial quantities are random, then the shared secret
contains the combined randomness of them both, assuming they are
uncorrelated.
6.1.4 Using a Mixing Function to Stretch Random Bits
While it is not necessary for a mixing function to produce the same
or fewer bits than its inputs, mixing bits cannot "stretch" the
amount of random unpredictability present in the inputs. Thus four
inputs of 32 bits each where there is 12 bits worth of
unpredicatability
unpredictability (such as 4,096 equally probable values) in each
input cannot produce more than 48 bits worth of unpredictable output.
The output can be expanded to hundreds or thousands of bits by, for
example, mixing with successive integers, but the clever adversary's
search space is still 2^48 possibilities. Furthermore, mixing to
fewer bits than are input will tend to strengthen the randomness of
the output the way using Exclusive Or to produce one bit from two did
above.
The last table in Section 6.1.1 shows that mixing a random bit with a
constant bit with Exclusive Or will produce a random bit. While this
is true, it does not provide a way to "stretch" one random bit into
more than one. If, for example, a random bit is mixed with a 0 and
then with a 1, this produces a two bit sequence but it will always be
either 01 or 10. Since there are only two possible values, there is
still only the one bit of original randomness.
6.1.5 Other Factors in Choosing a Mixing Function
For local use, AES has the advantages that it has been widely tested
for flaws, is reasonably efficient in software, and is widely
documented and implemented with hardware and software implementations
available all over the world including open source code. The SHA*
family are younger algorithms have had a little less study and tend to require more CPU
cycles than AES but there is no particular reason to believe they are flawed.
Both SHA* and MD5 were derived from the earlier MD4 algorithm. They
all have source code available [SHA*, MD*]. Some signs of weakness
have been found in MD4 and MD5. They all In particular, MD4 has only three
rounds and there are several independent breaks of the first two or
last two rounds. And some collisions have source code available [SHA*, MD*]. been found in MD5 output.
AES was selected by a robust, public, and international process. It
and SHA* have been vouched for the by the US National Security Agency
(NSA) on the basis of criteria that primarily mostly remain secret, as was DES.
While this has been the cause of much speculation and doubt,
investigation of DES over the years has indicated that NSA
involvement in modifications to its design, which originated with
IBM, was primarily to strengthen it. No concealed or special weakness
has been found in DES. It is very likely that the NSA modifications to MD4
to produce the SHA* SHA algorithms similarly strengthened these
algorithms, possibly against threats not yet known in the public
cryptographic community.
AES, DES, SHA*, MD4, and MD5
Where input lengths are unpredictable, hash algorithms are believed a little
more convenient to be royalty free for all
purposes. Continued advances in crypography and computing power have
cast doubts on MD4 and MD5 so their use is generally not recommended.
Another advantage of the SHA* or similar hashing than block encryption algorithms over since they
are generally designed to accept variable length inputs. Block
encryption algorithms in the past was generally require an additional padding
algorithm to accomodate inputs that they are not subject to an even multiple of the same regulations imposed by
block size.
As of the US Government prohibiting time of this document, the
unlicensed export or import authors know of encryption/decryption software no patent claims
to the basic AES, DES, SHA*, MD4, and
hardware. MD5 algorithms other than
patents for which an irrevocable royalty free license has been
granted to the world. There may, of course, be basic patents of which
the authors are unaware or patents on implementations or uses or
other relevant patents issued or to be issued.
6.2 Non-Hardware Sources of Randomness
The best source of input for mixing would be a hardware randomness
such as ring oscillators, disk drive timing effected by air turbulence, audio input
with timing, thermal noise, or
radioactive decay. However, if that is not available there are other
possibilities. These include system clocks, system or input/output
buffers, user/system/hardware/network serial numbers and/or addresses
and timing, and user input. Unfortunately, any each of these sources can
produce very limited or
predicatable predictable values under some circumstances.
Some of the sources listed above would be quite strong on multi-user
systems where, in essence, each user of the system is a source of
randomness. However, on a small single user or embedded system,
especially at start up, it might be possible for an adversary to
assemble a similar configuration. This could give the adversary
inputs to the mixing process that were sufficiently correlated to
those used originally as to make exhaustive search practical.
The use of multiple random inputs with a strong mixing function is
recommended and can overcome weakness in any particular input. For
example, the The
timing and content of requested "random" user keystrokes can yield
hundreds of random bits but conservative assumptions need to be made.
For example, assuming at most a few bits of randomness if the inter-keystroke inter-
keystroke interval is unique in the sequence up to that point and a
similar assumption if the key hit is unique but assuming that no bits
of randomness are present in the initial key value or if the timing
or key value duplicate previous values. The results of mixing these
timings and characters typed could be further combined with clock
values and other inputs.
This strategy may make practical portable code to produce good random
numbers for security even if some of the inputs are very weak on some
of the target systems. However, it may still fail against a high
grade attack on small small, single user or embedded systems, especially if
the adversary has ever been able to observe the generation process in
the past. A hardware based random source is still preferable.
6.3 Cryptographically Strong Sequences
In cases where a series of random quantities must be generated, an
adversary may learn some values in the sequence. In general, they
should not be able to predict other values from the ones that they
know.
The correct technique is to start with a strong random seed, take
cryptographically strong steps from that seed [CRYPTO2, CRYPTO3], [FERGUSON, SCHNEIER],
and do not reveal the complete state of the generator in the sequence
elements. If each value in the sequence can be calculated in a fixed
way from the previous value, then when any value is compromised, all
future values can be determined. This would be the case, for example,
if each value were a constant function of the previously used values,
even if the function were a very strong, non-invertible message
digest function.
(It should be noted that if your technique for generating a sequence
of key values is fast enough, it can trivially be used as the basis
for a confidentiality system. If two parties use the same sequence
generating technique and start with the same seed material, they will
generate identical sequences. These could, for example, be xor'ed at
one end with data being send, encrypting it, and xor'ed with this
data as received, decrypting it due to the reversible properties of
the xor operation.) operation. This is commonly referred to as a simple stream
cipher.)
6.3.1 Traditional Strong Sequences
A traditional way to achieve a strong sequence has been to have the
values be produced by hashing the quantities produced by
concatenating the seed with successive integers or the like and then
mask the values obtained so as to limit the amount of generator state
available to the adversary.
It may also be possible to use an "encryption" algorithm with a
random key and seed value to encrypt and feedback some or all of the
output encrypted value into the value to be encrypted for the next
iteration. Appropriate feedback techniques will usually be
recommended with the encryption algorithm. An example is shown below
where shifting and masking are used to combine the cypher output
feedback. This type of feedback was recommended is defined by the US Government in
connection with AES and DES [DES MODES] [MODES] as Output Feedback Mode (OFM) but
should be avoided for reasons described below.
+---------------+
| V |
| | n |--+
+--+------------+ |
| | +---------+
|
shift| +---> | | +-----+
+--+ | Encrypt | <--- | Key |
| +-------- | | +-----+
| | +---------+
V V
+------------+--+
| V | |
| n+1 |
+---------------+
Note that if a shift of one is used, this is the same as the shift
register technique described in Section 3 above but with the all
important difference that the feedback is determined by a complex
non-linear function of all bits rather than a simple linear or
polynomial combination of output from a few bit position taps.
It has been shown by Donald W. Davies that this sort of shifted
partial output feedback significantly weakens an algorithm compared
will
with feeding all of the output bits back as input. In particular, for
DES, repeated encrypting a full 64 bit quantity will give an expected
repeat in about 2^63 iterations. Feeding back anything less than 64
(and more than 0) bits will give an expected repeat in between 2**31 2^31
and 2**32 2^32 iterations!
To predict values of a sequence from others when the sequence was
generated by these techniques is equivalent to breaking the
cryptosystem or inverting the "non-invertible" hashing involved with
only partial information available. The less information revealed
each iteration, the harder it will be for an adversary to predict the
sequence. Thus it is best to use only one bit from each value. It has
been shown that in some cases this makes it impossible to break a
system even when the cryptographic system is invertible and can be
broken if all of each generated value was revealed.
6.3.2 The Blum Blum Shub Sequence Generator
Currently the generator which has the strongest public proof of
strength is called the Blum Blum Shub generator after its inventors
[BBS]. It is also very simple and is based on quadratic residues.
It's only disadvantage is that is it is computationally intensive
compared with the traditional techniques give in 6.3.1 above. This is
not a major draw back if it is used for moderately infrequent
purposes, such as generating session keys.
Simply choose two large prime numbers, say p and q, which both have
the property that you get a remainder of 3 if you divide them by 4.
Let n = p * q. Then you choose a random number x relatively prime to
n. The initial seed for the generator and the method for calculating
subsequent values are then
2
s = ( x )(Mod n)
0
2
s = ( s )(Mod n)
i+1 i
You must be careful to use only a few bits from the bottom of each s.
It is always safe to use only the lowest order bit. If you use no
more than the
log ( log ( s ) )
2 2 i
low order bits, then predicting any additional bits from a sequence
generated in this manner is provable as hard as factoring n. As long
as the initial x is secret, you can even make n public if you want.
An intersting interesting characteristic of this generator is that you can
directly calculate any of the s values. In particular
i
( ( 2 )(Mod (( p - 1 ) * ( q - 1 )) ) )
s = ( s )(Mod n)
i 0
This means that in applications where many keys are generated in this
fashion, it is not necessary to save them all. Each key can be
effectively indexed and recovered from that small index and the
initial s and n.
6.3.3 Entropy Pool Techniques
Many modern pseudo random pseudo-random number sources utilize the technique of
maintaining a "pool" of bits and providing operations for strongly
mixing input with some randomness into the pool and extracting psuedo
random bits from the pool. This is illustred illustrated in the figure below.
+--------+ +------+ +---------+
--->| Mix In |--->| POOL |--->| Extract |--->
| Bits | | | | Bits |
+--------+ +------+ +---------+
^ V
| |
+-----------+
Bits to be feed into the pool can be any of the various hardware,
environmental, or user input sources discussed above. It is also
common to save the state of the pool on system shut down and restore
it on re-starting, if stable storage is available.
In fact, all of the [MD*] and [SHA*] message digest functions are
implemented by internally maintaining a pool substantially larger
than their ultimate output into which the bytes of the message are
mixed and from which the ultimate message digest is extracted. Thus
the figure above can be implemented by using parts of the message
digest code to strongly mix in any new bit supplied and to compute
output bits based on the pool. However, additional code is needed so
that any number of bits can be extracted and appropriate feedback
from the output process is mixed into the pool so as to produce a
strong pseudo-random output stream.
Care must be taken that enough entropy has been added to the pool to
support particular output uses desired. See Section 7.3 for 7.5 for more
details on an example implementation and [RSA BULL1] for similar
suggestions.
7. Key Generation Standards and Examples
Several public standards and widely deplyed deployed examples are now in
place for the generation of keys without special hardware. Two Three
standards are described below. Both The two older standards use DES DES, with
its 64-bit block and key size limit, but any equally strong or
stronger mixing function could be substituted. Then The third is a few more
modern and stronger standard based on SHA-1. Finally the widely
deployed
examples modern UNIX random number generators are described.
7.1 US DoD Recommendations for Password Generation
The United States Department of Defense has specific recommendations
for password generation [DoD]. They suggest using the US Data
Encryption Standard [DES] in Output Feedback Mode [DES MODES] [MODES] as follows:
use an initialization vector determined from
the system clock,
system ID,
user ID, and
date and time;
use a key determined from
system interrupt registers,
system status registers, and
system counters; and,
as plain text, use an external randomly generated 64 bit
quantity such as 8 characters typed in by a system
administrator.
The password can then be calculated from the 64 bit "cipher text"
generated by DES in 64-bit Output Feedback Mode. As many bits as are
needed can be taken from these 64 bits and expanded into a
pronounceable word, phrase, or other format if a human being needs to
remember the password.
7.2 X9.17 Key Generation
The American National Standards Institute has specified a method for
generating a sequence of keys as follows: follows [X9.17]:
s is the initial 64 bit seed
0
g is the sequence of generated 64 bit key quantities
n
k is a random key reserved for generating this key sequence
t is the time at which a key is generated to as fine a resolution
as is available (up to 64 bits).
DES ( K, Q ) is the DES encryption of quantity Q with key K
g = DES ( k, DES ( k, t ) .xor. s )
n n
s = DES ( k, DES ( k, t ) .xor. g )
n+1 n
If g sub n is to be used as a DES key, then every eighth bit should
be adjusted for parity for that use but the entire 64 bit unmodified
g should be used in calculating the next s.
7.3 DSS Pseudo-Random Number Generation
Appendix 3 of the NIST Digital Signature Standard [DSS] provides an
approved method of producing a sequence of pseudo-random 160 bit
quantities for use as private keys or the like. A subset of that
algorithm is as follows:
t = 0x 67452301 EFCDAB89 98BADCFE 10325476 C3D2E1F0
q = a 160-bit prime number
XKEY = initial seed
0
For j = 0 to ...
XVAL = ( XKEY + optional user input ) (Mod 2^512)
j
X = G( t, XVAL ) (Mod q)
j
XKEY = ( 1 + XKEY + X ) (Mod 2^512)
j+1 j j
The quantities X thus produced are the pseudo-random sequence of
values in the rang 0 to q. Two functions can be used for "G" above.
Each produces a 160-bit value and takes two arguments, the first a
160-bit value and the second a 512 bit value.
The first is based on SHA-1 and works by setting the 5 linking
variables, denoted H with subscripts in the SHA-1 specification, to
the first argument divided into fifths. Then steps (a) through (e) of
section 7 of the SHA-1 specification are run over the second argument
as if it were a 512-bit data block. The values of the linking
variable after those steps are then concatenated to produce the
output of G. [SHA-1]
As an alternative, NIST also defined an alternate G function based on
multiple applications of the DES encryption function [DSS].
7.4 X9.82 Pseudo-Random Number Generation
The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) and the
American National Standards Institutes (ANSI) X9F1 committee are in
the final stages of creating a standard for random number generation.
This standard includes a number of random number generators for use
with AES and other block ciphers. It also includes random number
generators based on hash functions and the arithmetic of elliptic
curves [X9.82].
7.5 The /dev/random Device under Linux
The Linux
Several versions of the UNIX operating system provides a Kernel kernel-
resident random number generator. This generator In some cases, these generators
makes use of events captured by the Kernel during normal system
operation.
The
For example, on some versions of Linux, the generator consists of a
random pool of bytes, by default 512 bytes (represented represented as 128, 4 byte integers). 128 words of 4-bytes each.
When an event occurs, such as a disk drive interrupt, the time of the
event is xor'ed into the pool and the pool is stirred via a primitive
polynomial of degree 128. The pool itself is treated as a ring
buffer, with new data being xor'ed XORed (after stirring with the
polynomial) across the entire pool.
Each call that adds entropy to the pool estimates the amount of
likely true entropy the input contains. The pool itself contains a
accumulator that estimates the total over all entropy of the pool.
Input events come from several sources:
1. Keyboard interrupts. The time of the interrupt as well as the scan
code are added to the pool. This in effect adds entropy from the
human operator by measuring inter-keystroke arrival times.
2. Disk completion and other interrupts. A system being used by a
person will likely have a hard to predict pattern of disk
accesses.
3. Mouse motion. The timing as well as mouse position is added in.
When random bytes are required, the pool is hashed with SHA-1 [SHA1]
to yield the returned bytes of randomness. If more bytes are required
than the output of SHA-1 (20 bytes), then the hashed output is
stirred back into the pool and a new hash performed to obtain the
next 20 bytes. As bytes are removed from the pool, the estimate of
entropy is similarly decremented.
To ensure a reasonable random pool upon system startup, the standard
Linux
startup scripts (and shutdown scripts) save the pool to a disk file
at shutdown and read this file at system startup.
There are two user exported interfaces. /dev/random returns bytes
from the pool, but blocks when the estimated entropy drops to zero.
As entropy is added to the pool from events, more data becomes
available via /dev/random. Random data obtained from such a
/dev/random device is suitable for key generation for long term keys.
/dev/urandom works like /dev/random, however it provides data even
when the entropy estimate for the random pool drops to zero. This
should may
be fine adequate for session keys. The risk of continuing to take data
even when the pool's entropy estimate is small is in that past output
may be computable from current output provided an attacker can
reverse SHA-1. Given that SHA-1 should not is designed to be invertible, non-invertible,
this is a reasonable risk.
To obtain random numbers under Linux, Solaris, or other UNIX systems
equiped with code as described above, all an application needs to do
is open either /dev/random or /dev/urandom and read the desired
number of bytes.
The
(The Linux Random device was written by Theodore Ts'o. It is was based
loosely on the random number generator in PGP 2.X and PGP 3.0 (aka
PGP 5.0). 5.0).)
8. Examples of Randomness Required
Below are two examples showing rough calculations of needed
randomness for security. The first is for moderate security passwords
while the second assumes a need for a very high security
cryptographic key.
In addition [ORMAN] and [RSA BULL13] provide information on the
public key lengths that should be used for exchanging symmetric keys.
8.1 Password Generation
Assume that user passwords change once a year and it is desired that
the probability that an adversary could guess the password for a
particular account be less than one in a thousand. Further assume
that sending a password to the system is the only way to try a
password. Then the crucial question is how often an adversary can try
possibilities. Assume that delays have been introduced into a system
so that, at most, an adversary can make one password try every six
seconds. That's 600 per hour or about 15,000 per day or about
5,000,000 tries in a year. Assuming any sort of monitoring, it is
unlikely someone could actually try continuously for a year. In fact,
even if log files are only checked monthly, 500,000 tries is more
plausible before the attack is noticed and steps taken to change
passwords and make it harder to try more passwords.
To have a one in a thousand chance of guessing the password in
500,000 tries implies a universe of at least 500,000,000 passwords or
about 2^29. Thus 29 bits of randomness are needed. This can probably
be achieved using the US DoD recommended inputs for password
generation as it has 8 inputs which probably average over 5 bits of
randomness each (see section 7.1). Using a list of 1000 words, the
password could be expressed as a three word phrase (1,000,000,000
possibilities) or, using case insensitive letters and digits, six
would suffice ((26+10)^6 = 2,176,782,336 possibilities).
For a higher security password, the number of bits required goes up.
To decrease the probability by 1,000 requires increasing the universe
of passwords by the same factor which adds about 10 bits. Thus to
have only a one in a million chance of a password being guessed under
the above scenario would require 39 bits of randomness and a password
that was a four word phrase from a 1000 word list or eight
letters/digits. To go to a one in 10^9 chance, 49 bits of randomness
are needed implying a five word phrase or ten letter/digit password.
In a real system, of course, there are also other factors. For
example, the larger and harder to remember passwords are, the more
likely users are to write them down resulting in an additional risk
of compromise.
8.2 A Very High Security Cryptographic Key
Assume that a very high security key is needed for symmetric
encryption / decryption between two parties. Assume an adversary can
observe communications and knows the algorithm being used. Within the
field of random possibilities, the adversary can try key values in
hopes of finding the one in use. Assume further that brute force
trial of keys is the best the adversary can do.
8.2.1 Effort per Key Trial
How much effort will it take to try each key? For very high security
applications it is best to assume a low value of effort. Even if it
would clearly take tens of thousands of computer cycles or more to
try a single key, there may be some pattern that enables huge blocks
of key values to be tested with much less effort per key. Thus it is
probably best to assume no more than a couple hundred cycles per key.
(There is no clear lower bound on this as computers operate in
parallel on a number of bits and a poor encryption algorithm could
allow many keys or even groups of keys to be tested in parallel.
However, we need to assume some value and can hope that a reasonably
strong algorithm has been chosen for our hypothetical high security
task.)
If the adversary can command a highly parallel processor or a large
network of work stations, 10^11 cycles per second is probably a
minimum assumption for availability today. Looking forward a few
years, there should be at least an order of magnitude improvement.
Thus assuming 10^10 keys could be checked per second or 3.6*10^12 per
hour or 6*10^14 per week or 2.4*10^15 per month is reasonable. This
question
implies a need for a minimum of 63 bits of randomness in keys to be
sure they cannot be found in a month. Even then it is possible that,
a few years from now, a highly determined and resourceful adversary
could break the key in 2 weeks (on average they need try only half
the keys).
These questions are considered in detail in Appendix A. "Minimal Key Lengths for
Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security: A Report
by an Ad Hoc Group of Cryptographers and Computer Scientists"
[KeyStudy] which was sponsored by the Business Software Alliance. It concludes
concluded that a reasonable key length in 1995 for very high security
is in the range of 75 to 90 bits and, since the cost of cryptography
does not vary much with they key size, recommends 90 bits. To update
these recommendations, just add 2/3 of a bit per year for Moore's law
[MOORE]. Thus, in the year 2004, this translates to a determination
that a reasonable key length is in the 81 to 96 bit range. In fact,
today, it is increasingly common to use keys longer than 96 bits,
such as 128-bit (or longer) keys with AES and keys with effective
lengths of 112-bits using triple-DES.
8.2.2 Meet in the Middle Attacks
If chosen or known plain text and the resulting encrypted text are
available, a "meet in the middle" attack is possible if the structure
of the encryption algorithm allows it. (In a known plain text attack,
the adversary knows all or part of the messages being encrypted,
possibly some standard header or trailer fields. In a chosen plain
text attack, the adversary can force some chosen plain text to be
encrypted, possibly by "leaking" an exciting text that would then be
sent by the adversary over an encrypted channel.)
An oversimplified explanation of the meet in the middle attack is as
follows: the adversary can half-encrypt the known or chosen plain
text with all possible first half-keys, sort the output, then half-
decrypt the encoded text with all the second half-keys. If a match is
found, the full key can be assembled from the halves and used to
decrypt other parts of the message or other messages. At its best,
this type of attack can halve the exponent of the work required by
the adversary while adding a very large but roughly constant factor
of effort. To Thus, if this attack can be assured of safety against this, mounted, a doubling of the
amount of randomness in the very strong key to a minimum of 162 192 bits
(96*2) is required for the year 2004 based on the Appendix A [KeyStudy]
analysis.
This amount of randomness is well beyond the limit of that in the
inputs recommended by the US DoD for password generation and could
require user typing timing, hardware random number generation, or
other sources.
The meet in the middle attack assumes that the cryptographic
algorithm can be decomposed in this way but we can not rule that out
without a deep knowledge of the algorithm. Even if a basic algorithm
is not subject to a meet in the middle attack, an attempt to produce
a stronger algorithm by applying the basic algorithm twice (or two
different algorithms sequentially) with different keys may gain less
added security than would be expected. Such a composite algorithm
would be subject to a meet in the middle attack.
Enormous resources may be required to mount a meet in the middle
attack but they are probably within the range of the national
security services of a major nation. Essentially all nations spy on
other nations government traffic traffic.
8.2.3 Other Considerations
[KeyStudy] also considers the possibilities of special purpose code
breaking hardware and several nations are believed to
spy having an adequate safety margin.
If the two parties agree on commercial traffic a key by Diffie-Hellman exchange [D-H],
then in principle only half of this randomness would have to be
supplied by each party. However, there is probably some correlation
between their random inputs so it is probably best to assume you end
up with more like one and a half times the bits of randomness each
provides for economic advantage. very high security if Diffie-Hellman is used.
It should be noted that key length calculations such at those above
are controversial and depend on various assumptions about the
cryptographic algorithms in use. In some cases, a professional with a
deep knowledge of code breaking techniques and of the strength of the
algorithm in use could be satisfied with less than half of the
162 192
bit key size derived above.
For further examples of conservative design principles see
[FERGUSON].
9. Conclusion
Generation of unguessable "random" secret quantities for security use
is an essential but difficult task.
Hardware techniques to produce such randomness would be relatively
simple. In particular, the volume and quality would not need to be
high and existing computer hardware, such as disk drives, can be
used.
Computational techniques are available to process low quality random
quantities from multiple sources or a larger quantity of such low
quality input from one source and produce a smaller quantity of
higher quality keying material. In the absence of hardware sources of
randomness, a variety of user and software sources can frequently,
with care, be used instead; however, most modern systems already have
hardware, such as disk drives or audio input, that could be used to
produce high quality randomness.
Once a sufficient quantity of high quality seed key material (a
couple of hundred bits) is available, computational techniques are
available to produce cryptographically strong sequences of
unpredicatable
unpredictable quantities from this seed material.
10. Security Considerations
The entirety of this document concerns techniques and recommendations
for generating unguessable "random" quantities for use as passwords,
cryptographic keys, initialiazation initialization vectors, sequence numbers, and
similar security uses.
11. Intellectual Property Considerations
The IETF takes no position regarding the validity or scope of any
intellectual property
Intellectual Property Rights or other rights that might be claimed to
pertain to the implementation or use of the technology described in
this document or the extent to which any license under such rights
might or might not be available; neither nor does it represent that it has
made any independent effort to identify any such rights. Information
on the
IETF's procedures with respect to rights in standards-track and
standards-related documentation RFC documents can be
found in BCP-11. BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Copies of
claims of rights IPR disclosures made available for publication to the IETF Secretariat and any
assurances of licenses to be made available, or the result of an
attempt made to obtain a general license or permission for the use of
such proprietary rights by implementors implementers or users of this
specification can be obtained from the IETF Secretariat. on-line IPR repository at
http://www.ietf.org/ipr.
The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any
copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary
rights which that may cover technology that may be required to practice implement
this standard. Please address the information to the IETF Executive
Director.
Appendix: Minimal Secure Key Lengths Study
Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers
to Provide Adequate Commercial Security
A Report by an Ad Hoc Group of
Cryptographers and Computer Scientists
Matt Blaze, AT&T Research, mab@research.att.com
Whitfield Diffie, Sun Microsystems, diffie@eng.sun.com
Ronald L. Rivest, MIT LCS, rivest@lcs.mit.edu
Bruce Schneier, Counterpane Systems, schneier@counterpane.com
Tsutomu Shimomura, San Diego Supercomputer Center, tsutomu@sdsc.edu
Eric Thompson Access Data, Inc., eric@accessdata.com
Michael Wiener, Bell Northern Research, wiener@bnr.ca
January 1996
A.0 Abstract
Encryption plays an essential role in protecting the privacy of
electronic information against threats from a variety of potential
attackers. In so doing, modern cryptography employs a combination of
_conventional_ or _symmetric_ cryptographic systems for encrypting
data and _public key_ or _asymmetric_ systems for managing the _keys_
used by the symmetric systems. Assessing the strength required of
the symmetric cryptographic systems is therefore an essential step in
employing cryptography for computer and communication security.
Technology readily available today (late 1995) makes _brute-
force_ attacks against cryptographic systems considered adequate for
the past several years both fast and cheap. General purpose
computers can be used, but a much more efficient approach is to
employ commercially available _Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)_
technology. For attackers prepared to make a higher initial
investment, custom-made, special-purpose chips make such calculations
much faster and significantly lower the amortized cost per solution.
As a result, cryptosystems with 40-bit keys offer virtually no
protection at this point against brute-force attacks. Even the U.S.
Data Encryption Standard with 56-bit keys is increasingly inadequate.
As cryptosystems often succumb to `smarter' attacks than brute-force
key search, it is also important to remember that the keylengths
discussed here are the minimum needed for security against the
computational threats considered.
Fortunately, the cost of very strong encryption is not
significantly greater than that of weak encryption. Therefore, to
provide adequate protection against the most serious threats ---
well-funded commercial enterprises or government intelligence
agencies --- keys used to protect data today should be at least 75
bits long. To protect information adequately for the next 20 years
in the face of expected advances in computing power, keys in newly-
deployed systems should be at least 90 bits long.
A.1. Encryption Plays an Essential Role in Protecting
the Privacy of Electronic Information"
A.1.1 There is a need for information security
As we write this paper in late 1995, the development of
electronic commerce and the Global Information Infrastructure is at a
critical juncture. The dirt paths of the middle ages only became
highways of business and culture after the security of travelers and
the merchandise they carried could be assured. So too the
information superhighway will be an ill-traveled road unless
information, the goods of the Information Age, can be moved, stored,
bought, and sold securely. Neither corporations nor individuals will
entrust their private business or personal data to computer networks
unless they can assure their information's security.
Today, most forms of information can be stored and processed
electronically. This means a wide variety of information, with
varying economic values and privacy aspects and with a wide variation
in the time over which the information needs to be protected, will be
found on computer networks. Consider the spectrum:
o Electronic Funds Transfers of millions or even billions of
dollars, whose short term security is essential but whose
exposure is brief;
o A company's strategic corporate plans, whose confidentiality
must be preserved for a small number of years;
o A proprietary product (Coke formula, new drug design) that
needs to be protected over its useful life, often decades;
and
o Information private to an individual (medical condition,
employment evaluation) that may need protection for the
lifetime of the individual.
A.1.2 Encryption to protect confidentiality
Encryption Can Provide Strong Confidentiality Protection
Encryption is accomplished by scrambling data using mathematical
procedures that make it extremely difficult and time consuming for
anyone other than authorized recipients --- those with the correct
decryption _keys_ --- to recover the _plain text_. Proper encryption
guarantees that the information will be safe even if it falls into
hostile hands.
Encryption --- and decryption --- can be performed by either
computer software or hardware. Common approaches include writing the
algorithm on a disk for execution by a computer central processor;
placing it in ROM or PROM for execution by a microprocessor; and
isolating storage and execution in a computer accessory device (smart
card or PCMCIA card).
The degree of protection obtained depends on several factors.
These include: the quality of the cryptosystem; the way it is
implemented in software or hardware (especially its reliability and
the manner in which the keys are chosen); and the total number of
possible keys that can be used to encrypt the information. A
cryptographic algorithm is considered strong if: ietf-
ipr@ietf.org.
12. Appendix A: Changes from RFC 1750
1. There is no shortcut that allows the opponent to recover the
plain text without using brute force to test keys until the
correct one is found; and
2. The number of possible keys is sufficiently large to make
such an attack infeasible.
The principle here is similar to that of a combination lock on a
safe. If the lock is well designed so that a burglar cannot hear or
feel its inner workings, a person who does not know the combination
can open it only by dialing one set of numbers after another until it
yields.
The sizes of encryption keys are measured in bits and the
difficulty of trying all possible keys grows exponentially with the
number of bits used. Adding one bit to the key doubles the number of
possible keys; adding ten increases it by a factor of more than a
thousand.
There is no definitive way to look at a cipher and determine
whether a shortcut exists. Nonetheless, several encryption
algorithms --- most notably the U.S Data Encryption Standard (DES)
--- Additional acknowledgements have been extensively studied in the public literature and are
widely believed to be of very high quality. An essential element in
cryptographic algorithm design is thus the length added.
2. Insertion of the key, whose
size places an upper bound section 5.2.4 on the system's strength.
Throughout this paper, we will assume that there are no shortcuts
and treat the length of the key as representative of the
cryptosystem's _workfactor_ --- the minimum amount of effort required
to break the system. It is important to bear in mind, however, that
cryptographers regard this as a rash assumption and many would
recommend keys two or more times as long as needed to resist brute-
force attacks. Prudent cryptographic designs not only employ longer
keys than might appear to be needed, but devote more computation to
encrypting and decrypting. A good example of this is the popular
approach of using _triple-DES_: encrypting the output of DES twice
more, using a total of three distinct keys.
Encryption systems fall into two broad classes. Conventional or
symmetric cryptosystems --- those in which an entity de-skewing with the ability
to encrypt also has the ability to decrypt and vice versa --- are the
systems under consideration in this paper. The more recent public
key or asymmetric cryptosystems have the property that the ability to
encrypt does not imply the ability to decrypt. In contemporary
cryptography, public-key systems are indispensable for managing the
keys of conventional cryptosystems. All known public key
cryptosystems, however, are subject to shortcut attacks and must
therefore use keys ten or more times the lengths of those discussed
here to achieve the an equivalent level of security.
Although computers permit electronic information to be encrypted
using very large keys, advances in computing power keep pushing up
the size of keys that can be considered large and thus keep making it
easier for individuals and organizations to attack encrypted
information without the expenditure of unreasonable resources.
A.1.3 There are a variety of attackers
There Are Threats from a Variety of Potential Attackers.
Threats to confidentiality of information come from a number S-boxes.
3. Addition of
directions and their forms depend section 5.4 on the resources of the attackers.
`Hackers,' who might be anything from high school students to
commercial programmers, may have access to mainframe computers or
networks of workstations. The same people can readily buy
inexpensive, off-the-shelf, boards, containing _Field Programmable
Gate Array (FPGA)_ chips that function as `programmable hardware' Ring Oscillator randomness sources.
4. AES and
vastly increase the effectiveness members of a cryptanalytic effort. A
startup company or even a well-heeled individual could afford large
numbers of these chips. A major corporation or organized crime
operation with `serious money' to spend could acquire custom computer
chips specially designed for decryption. An intelligence agency,
engaged in espionage for national economic advantage, could build a
machine employing millions of such chips.
A.1.4 Strong encryption is not expensive
Current Technology Permits Very Strong Encryption for Effectively the
Same Cost As Weaker Encryption.
It is a property of computer encryption that modest increases in
computational cost can produce vast increases in security.
Encrypting information very securely (e.g., with 128-bit keys)
typically requires little SHA series producing more computing than encrypting it weakly
(e.g., with 40-bit keys). In many applications, the cryptography
itself accounts for only a small fraction of the computing costs,
compared to such processes as voice or image compression required to
prepare material for encryption.
One consequence of this uniformity of costs is that there is
rarely any need to tailor the strength of cryptography to the
sensitivity of the information being protected. Even if most of the
information in a system has neither privacy implications nor monetary
value, there is no practical or economic reason to design computer
hardware or software to provide differing levels of encryption for
different messages. It is simplest, most prudent, and thus
fundamentally most economical, to employ a uniformly high level of
encryption: the strongest encryption required for any information
that might be stored or transmitted by a secure system.
A.2. Brute-Force is becoming easier
Readily Available Technology Makes Brute-Force Decryption Attacks
Faster and Cheaper.
The kind of hardware used to mount a brute-force attack against
an encryption algorithm depends on the scale of the cryptanalytic
operation and the total funds available to the attacking enterprise.
In the analysis that follows, we consider three general classes of
technology that are likely to be employed by attackers with differing
resources available to them. Not surprisingly, the cryptanalytic
technologies that require larger up-front investments yield the
lowest cost per recovered key, amortized over the life of the
hardware.
It is the nature of brute-force attacks that they can be
parallelized indefinitely. It is possible to use as many machines as
are available, assigning each to work on a separate part of the
problem. Thus regardless of the technology employed, the search time
can be reduced by adding more equipment; twice as much hardware can
be expected to find the right key in half the time. The total
investment will 160
bits have doubled, but if the hardware is kept constantly
busy finding keys, the cost per key recovered is unchanged.
At the low end of the technology spectrum is the use of
conventional personal computers or workstations programmed to test
keys. Many people, by virtue of already owning or having access to
the machines, are in a position use such resources at little or no
cost. However, general purpose computers --- laden with such
ancillary equipment as video controllers, keyboards, interfaces,
memory, and disk storage --- make expensive search engines. They are
therefore likely to be employed only by casual attackers who are
unable or unwilling to invest in more specialized equipment.
A more efficient technological approach is to take advantage of
commercially available Field Programmable Gate Arrays. FPGAs
function as programmable hardware and allow faster implementations of
such tasks as encryption and decryption than conventional processors.
FPGAs are a commonly used tool for simple computations that need to
be done very quickly, particularly simulating integrated circuits
during development.
FPGA technology is fast and cheap. The cost of an AT&T ORCA chip
that can test 30 million DES keys per second is $200. This is 1,000
times faster than a PC at about one-tenth the cost! FPGAs are widely
available and, mounted on cards, can be installed in standard PCs
just like sound cards, modems, or extra memory.
FPGA technology may be optimal when the same tool must be used
for attacking a variety of different cryptosystems. Often, as with
DES, a cryptosystem is sufficiently widely used to justify the
construction of more specialized facilities. In these circumstances,
the most cost-effective technology, but the one requiring the largest
initial investment, is the use of _Application-Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs)_. A $10 chip can test 200 million keys per second.
This is seven times faster than an FPGA chip at one-twentieth the
cost.
Because ASICs require a far greater engineering investment than
FPGAs and must be fabricated in quantity before they are economical,
this approach is only available to serious, well-funded operations
such as dedicated commercial (or criminal) enterprises and government
intelligence agencies.
A.3. 40-Bit Key Lengths Offer Virtually No Protection
Current U.S. Government policy generally limits exportable mass
market software that incorporates encryption for confidentiality to
using the RC2 or RC4 algorithms with 40-bit keys. A 40-bit key
length means that there are 2^40 possible keys. On average, half of
these (2^39) must be tried to find the correct one. Export been added. Use of other
algorithms and key lengths must be approved on a case by case basis.
For example, DES with a 56-bit key AES has been approved for certain
applications such as financial transactions.
The recent successful brute-force attack by two French graduate
students on Netscape's 40-bit RC4 algorithm demonstrates the dangers
of such short keys. These students at the Ecole Polytechnique in
Paris used `idle time' on the school's computers, incurring no cost
to themselves or their school. Even with these limited resources,
they were able to recover the 40-bit key in a few days.
There is no need to have the resources of an institution of
higher education at hand, however. Anyone with a modicum of computer
expertise and a few hundred dollars would be able to attack 40-bit
encryption much faster. An FPGA chip --- costing approximately $400
mounted on a card --- would on average recover a 40-bit key in five
hours. Assuming the FPGA lasts three years and is used continuously
to find keys, the average cost per key is eight cents.
A more determined commercial predator, prepared to spend $10,000
for a set-up with 25 ORCA chips, can find 40-bit keys in an average
of 12 minutes, at the same average eight cent cost. Spending more
money to buy more chips reduces the time accordingly: $300,000
results in a solution in an average of 24 seconds; $10,000,000
results in an average solution in 0.7 seconds.
As already noted, a corporation with substantial resources can
design and commission custom chips that are much faster. By doing
this, a company spending $300,000 could find the right 40-bit key in
an average of 0.18 seconds at 1/10th of a cent per solution; a larger
company or government agency willing to spend $10,000,000 could find
the right key on average in 0.005 seconds (again at 1/10th of a cent
per solution). (Note that the cost per solution remains constant
because we have conservatively assumed constant costs for chip
acquisition --- in fact increasing the quantities purchased of a
custom chip reduces the average chip cost as the initial design and
set-up costs are spread over a greater number of chips.)
These results are summarized in Table I (below).
A.4. Even DES with 56-Bit Keys Is Increasingly Inadequate
A.4.1 DES is no panacea today
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) was developed in the 1970s by
IBM and NSA and adopted by the U.S. Government as a Federal
Information Processing Standard for data encryption. It was intended
to provide strong encryption for the government's sensitive but
unclassified information. It was recognized by many, even at the
time DES was adopted, that technological developments would make
DES's 56-bit key exceedingly vulnerable to attack before the end of
the century.
Today, DES may be the most widely employed encryption algorithm
and continues to be a commonly cited benchmark. Yet DES-like
encryption strength is no panacea. Calculations show that DES is
inadequate against a corporate or government attacker committing
serious resources. The bottom line is that DES is cheaper emphasized and easier
to break than many believe.
As explained above, 40-bit encryption provides inadequate
protection against even the most casual of intruders, content to
scavenge time on idle machines or to spend a few hundred dollars.
Against such opponents, using DES with a 56-bit key will provide a
substantial measure of security. At present, it would take a year
and a half for someone using $10,000 worth use
of FPGA technology to
search out a DES key. In ten years time an investment minimized.
5. Addition of this size
would allow one to find a DES key in less than a week.
The real threat to commercial transactions and to privacy section 6.3.3 on the
Internet is from individuals and organizations willing to invest
substantial time and money. As more and more business and personal
information becomes electronic, the potential rewards to a dedicated
commercial predator also increase significantly and may justify the
commitment entropy pool techniques.
6. Addition of adequate resources.
A serious effort --- section 7.3 on the order of $300,000 --- by a legitimate
or illegitimate business could find a DES key in an average of 19
days using off-the-shelf technology and pseudo-random number generation
techniques given in only 3 hours using a
custom developed chip. In the latter case, it would cost $38 to find
each key (again assuming a 3 year life to the chip and continual
use). A business or government willing to spend $10,000,000 FIPS 186-2, 7.4 on
custom chips, could recover DES keys in an average of 6 minutes, for
the same $38 per key.
At the very high end, an organization --- presumably a government
intelligence agency --- willing to spend $300,000,000 could recover
DES keys in 12 seconds each! The investment required is large but
not unheard of in the intelligence community. It is less than the
cost of the Glomar Explorer, built to salvage a single Russian
submarine, and far less than the cost of many spy satellites. Such
an expense might be hard to justify in attacking a single target, but
seems entirely appropriate against a cryptographic algorithm, like
DES, enjoying extensive popularity around the world.
There is ample evidence of the danger presented by government
intelligence agencies seeking to obtain information not only for
military purposes but for commercial advantage. Congressional
hearings in 1993 highlighted instances those given in which the French X9.82, and
Japanese governments spied
section 7.5 on behalf of their countries' own
businesses. Thus, having to protect commercial information against
such threats is not a hypothetical proposition.
A.4.2 There are smarter avenues of attack than brute force
It is easier to walk around a tree than climb up and down it.
There is no need to break the window of a house to get in if the
front door is unlocked.
Calculations regarding the strength random number generation techniques of encryption against brute-
force attack are _worst case_ scenarios. They assume that the
ciphers are
/dev/random device in a sense perfect and that attempts to find shortcuts
have failed. One important point is that the crudest approach ---
searching through the keys --- is entirely feasible against many
widely used systems. Another is that the keylengths we discuss are
always minimal. As discussed earlier, prudent designs might use keys
twice or three times as long to provide a margin of safety.
A.4.3 Other algorithms are similar
The Analysis for Other Algorithms Is Roughly Comparable.
The above analysis has focused on the time Linux and money required to
find a key to decrypt information using the RC4 algorithm with a 40-
bit key or the DES algorithm with its 56-bit key, but the results are
not peculiar to these ciphers. Although each algorithm has its own
particular characteristics, the effort required to find the keys of other ciphers is comparable. There may be some differences as the
result of implementation procedures, but these do not materially
affect the brute-force breakability of algorithms with roughly
comparable key lengths.
Specifically, it has been suggested at times that differences in
set-up procedures, such as the long key-setup process in RC4, result
in some algorithms having effectively longer keys than others. For
the purpose UNIX systems.
7. Addition of our analysis, such factors appear references to vary the
effective key length by no more than about eight bits.
A.5. Appropriate "Minimal Key Lengths for the Future --- A Proposal
Table I summarizes the costs of carrying out brute-force attacks
against symmetric cryptosystems with 40-bit and 56-bit keys using
networks of general purpose computers, Field Programmable Gate
Arrays, and special-purpose chips.
It shows that 56 bits provides a level of protection --- about a
year and a half --- that would be adequate for many commercial
purposes against an opponent prepared to invest $10,000. Against an
opponent prepared to invest $300,000, the period of protection has
dropped to the barest minimum of 19 days. Above this, the protection
quickly declines to negligible. A very large, but easily imaginable,
investment by an intelligence agency would clearly allow it to
recover keys in real time.
What workfactor would be required for security today? For an
opponent whose budget lay in the $10 to 300 million range, the time
required to search out keys in a 75-bit keyspace would be between 6
years and 70 days. Although the latter figure may seem comparable to
the `barest minimum' 19 days mentioned earlier, it represents ---
under our amortization assumptions --- a cost of $19 million and a
recovery rate of only five keys a year. The victims of such an
attack would have to be fat targets indeed.
Because many kinds of information must be kept confidential for
long periods of time, assessment cannot be limited to the protection
required today. Equally important, cryptosystems --- especially if
they are standards --- often remain in use for years or even decades.
DES, for example, has been in use for more than 20 years and will
probably continue to be employed for several more. In particular,
the lifetime of a cryptosystem is likely to exceed the lifetime of
any individual product embodying it.
A rough estimate of the minimum strength required as a function
of time can be obtained by applying an empirical rule, popularly
called `Moore's Law,' which holds that the computing power available
for a given cost doubles every 18 months. Taking into account both
the lifetime of cryptographic equipment and the lifetime of the
secrets it protects, we believe it is prudent to require that
encrypted data should still be secure in 20 years. Moore's Law thus
predicts that the keys should be approximately 14 bits longer than
required to protect against an attack today.
*Bearing in mind that the additional computational costs of
stronger encryption are modest, we strongly recommend a minimum key-
length of 90 bits for symmetric cryptosystems.*
It is instructive to compare this recommendation with both
Federal Information Processing Standard 46, The Data Encryption
Standard (DES), and Federal Information Processing Standard 185, The
Escrowed Encryption Standard (EES). DES was proposed 21 years ago
and used a 56-bit key. Applying Moore's Law and adding 14 bits, we
see that the strength of DES when it was proposed in 1975 was
comparable to that of a 70-bit system today. Furthermore, it was
estimated at the time that DES was not strong enough and that keys
could be recovered at a rate of one per day for an investment of
about twenty-million dollars. Our 75-bit estimate today corresponds
to 61 bits in 1975, enough to have moved the cost of key recovery
just out of reach. The Escrowed Encryption Standard, while
unacceptable to many potential users for other reasons, embodies a
notion of appropriate key length that is similar Symmetric
Ciphers to our own. It uses
80-bit keys, a number that lies between our figures of 75 and 90
bits.
Table I
Time and cost Length Needed
Type of Budget Tool per key recovered for protection
Attacker 40bits 56bits in Late 1995
Pedestrian Hacker
tiny scavenged 1 week infeasible 45
computer
time
$400 FPGA 5 hours 38 years 50
($0.08) ($5,000)
Small Business
$10,000 FPGA 12 minutes 556 days 55
($0.08) ($5,000)
Corporate Department
$300K FPGA 24 seconds 19 days 60
or ($0.08) ($5,000)
ASIC .18 seconds 3 hours
($0.001) ($38)
Big Company
$10M FPGA .7 seconds 13 hours 70
or ($0.08) ($5,000)
ASIC .005 seconds 6 minutes
($0.001) ($38)
Intellegence Agency
$300M ASIC .0002 seconds 12 seconds 75
($0.001) ($38)
A.6 About the Authors
*Matt Blaze* is a senior research scientist at AT&T Research in the
area of computer security and cryptography. Recently Blaze
demonstrated weaknesses in the U.S. government's `Clipper Chip' key
escrow encryption system. His current interests include large-scale
trust management and the applications of smartcards.
*Whitfield Diffie* is a distinguished Engineer at Sun Microsystems
specializing in security. In 1976 Diffie and Martin Hellman created
public key cryptography, which solved the problem of sending coded
information between individuals with no prior relationship and is the
basis for widespread encryption in the digital information age.
*Ronald L. Rivest* is a professor of computer science at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is Associate Director of
MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science. Rivest, together with Leonard
Adleman and Adi Shamir, invented the RSA public-key cryptosystem that
is used widely throughout industry. Ron Rivest is one of the
founders of RSA Data Security Inc. and is the creator of variable key
length symmetric key ciphers (e.g., RC4).
*Bruce Schneier* is president of Counterpane Systems, a consulting
firm specializing in cryptography and computer security. Schneier
writes and speaks frequently on computer security and privacy and is
the author of a leading cryptography textbook, Applied Cryptography,
and is the creator of the symmetric key cipher Blowfish.
*Tsutomu Shimomura* is a computational physicist employed by the San
Diego Supercomputer Center who is an expert in designing software
security tools. Last year, Shimomura was responsible for tracking
down the computer outlaw Kevin Mitnick, who electronically stole and
altered valuable electronic information around the country.
*Eric Thompson* heads AccessData Corporation's cryptanalytic team and
is a frequent lecturer on applied crytography. AccessData
specializes Provide Adequate Commercial Security" study published
in data recovery and decrypting information utilizing
brute force as well as `smarter' attacks. Regular clients include
the FBI and other law enforcement agencies as well as corporations.
*Michael Wiener* is a cryptographic advisor at Bell-Northern Research
where he focuses on cryptanalysis, security architectures, January 1996 [KeyStudy].
8. Minor wording changes and
public-key infrastructures. His influential 1993 paper, Efficient
DES Key Search, describes in detail how to construct a machine to
brute force crack DES coded information (and provides cost estimates
as well).
A.7 Acknowledgement
The [Appendix] authors would like to thank the Business Software
Alliance, which provided support for a one-day meeting, held in
Chicago on 20 November 1995. reference updates.
13. Informative References
[AES] - "Specification of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)",
United States of America, Department of Commerce, US National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Federal Information Processing Standard FIPS 197, November 2001.
[ASYMMETRIC] - "Secure Communications and Asymmetric Cryptosystems",
edited by Gustavus J. Simmons, AAAS Selected Symposium 69, Westview
Press, Inc.
[BBS] - "A Simple Unpredictable Pseudo-Random Number Generator", SIAM
Journal on Computing, v. 15, n. 2, 1986, L. Blum, M. Blum, & M. Shub.
[BRILLINGER] - "Time Series: Data Analysis and Theory", Holden-Day,
1981, David Brillinger.
[CRC] - "C.R.C. Standard Mathematical Tables", Chemical Rubber
Publishing Company.
[CRYPTO1] - "Cryptography: A Primer", A Wiley-Interscience
Publication, John Wiley & Sons, 1981, Alan G. Konheim.
[CRYPTO2] - "Cryptography: A New Dimension in Computer Data
Security", A Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, 1982,
Carl H. Meyer & Stephen M. Matyas.
[CRYPTO3] - "Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithsm, and Source
Code in C", Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1996, Bruce Schneier.
[DAVIS] - "Cryptographic Randomness from Air Turbulence in Disk
Drives", Advances in Cryptology - Crypto '94, Springer-Verlag Lecture
Notes in Computer Science #839, 1984, Don Davis, Ross Ihaka, and
Philip Fenstermacher.
[DES] - "Data Encryption Standard", United States of America,
Department of Commerce, US National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) FIPS 46-3, October 1999.
- "Data Encryption Algorithm", American National Standards
Institute, ANSI X3.92-1981.
(See also FIPS 112, Password Usage, which includes FORTRAN
code for performing DES.)
[DES MODES] - "DES Modes of Operation", United States of America,
Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 81,
December 1980.
- Data Encryption Algorithm - Modes of Operation, American National
Standards Institute, ANSI X3.106-1983.
[D-H] - "New Directions in Cryptography", IEEE Transactions on
Information Technology, November, 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin
E. Hellman. RFC 2631, "Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method", Eric
Rescrola, June 1999.
[DNSSEC] - RFC 2535, "Domain Name System Security Extensions", D.
Eastlake, March 1999.
[DoD] - "Password Management Guideline", United States of America,
Department of Defense, Computer Security Center, CSC-STD-002-85.
(See also FIPS 112, Password Usage, which incorporates CSC-STD-002-85
as one of its appendices.)
[DSS] - "Digital Signature Standard (DSS)", United States of America,
Department of Commerce, US National Institute of
Standards and
Technoloy, Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Technology, FIPS 186-2, January 2000.
[FERGUSON] - "Practical Cryptography", Niels Ferguson and Bruce
Schneier, Wiley Publishing Inc., ISBN 047122894X, April 2003.
[GIFFORD] - "Natural Random Number", MIT/LCS/TM-371, September 1988, David K. Gifford
Gifford, September 1988.
[IEEE 802.11i] - "Draft Amendment to Standard for Telecommunications
and Information Exchange Between Systems - LAN/MAN Specific
Requirements - Part 11: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and
physical layer (PHY) specifications: Medium Access Control (MAC)
Security Enhancements", The Institute for Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, January 2004.
[IPSEC] - RFC 2401, "Security Architecture for the Internet
Protocol", S. Kent, R. Atkinson, November 1998 1998.
[KAUFMAN] - "Network Security: Private Communication in a Public
World", Charlie Kaufman, Radia Perlman, and Mike Speciner, Prentis
Hall PTR, ISBN 0-13-046019-2, 2nd Edition 2002.
[KeyStudy] - "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide
Adequate Commercial Security: A Report by an Ad Hoc Group of
Cryptographers and Computer Scientists", M. Blaze, W. Diffie, R.
Rivest, B. Schneier, T. Shimomura, E. Thompson, and M. Weiner,
January 1996, <www.counterpane.com/keylength.html>.
[KNUTH] - "The Art of Computer Programming", Volume 2: Seminumerical
Algorithms, Chapter 3: Random Numbers. Addison Wesley Publishing
Company, Second 3rd Edition 1982, November 1997, Donald E. Knuth.
[KRAWCZYK] - "How to Predict Congruential Generators", Journal of
Algorithms, V. 13, N. 4, December 1992, H. Krawczyk
[MAIL PEM] - RFCs 1421 through 1424:
- RFC 1424, 1421, Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail:
Part
IV: Key Certification I: Message Encryption and Related Services, Authentication Procedures, 02/10/1993, B. Kaliski
J. Linn
- RFC 1423, 1422, Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail:
Part
III: Algorithms, Modes, and Identifiers, II: Certificate-Based Key Management, 02/10/1993, D. Balenson S. Kent
- RFC 1422, 1423, Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail:
Part
II: Certificate-Based Key Management, III: Algorithms, Modes, and Identifiers, 02/10/1993, S. Kent D. Balenson
- RFC 1421, 1424, Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail:
Part I:
Message Encryption IV: Key Certification and Authentication Procedures, Related Services, 02/10/1993, J. Linn B.
Kaliski
[MAIL PGP]
- RFC 2440, "OpenPGP Message Format", J. Callas, L.
Donnerhacke, H. Finney, R. Thayer", November 1998 1998.
- RFC 3156, "MIME Security with OpenPGP" M. Elkins, D. Del
Torto, R. Levien, T. Roessler, August 2001.
[MAIL S/MIME] - RFCs 2632 through 2634:
- RFC 2632, "S/MIME Version 3 Certificate Handling", B.
Ramsdell, Ed., June 1999.
- RFC 2633, "S/MIME Version 3 Message Specification", B.
Ramsdell, Ed., June 1999.
- RFC 2634, "Enhanced Security Services for S/MIME" P.
Hoffman, Ed., June 1999.
[MD4] - "The MD4 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC1320, April 1992, R.
Rivest
[MD5] - "The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC1321, April 1992, R.
Rivest
[MODES] - "DES Modes of Operation", US National Institute of
Standards and Technology, FIPS 81, December 1980.
- "Data Encryption Algorithm - Modes of Operation", American
National Standards Institute, ANSI X3.106-1983.
[MOORE] - Moore's Law: the exponential increase in the logic density
of silicon circuts. circuits. Originally formulated by Gordon Moore in 1964 as
a doubling every year starting in 1962, in the late 1970s the rate
fell to a doubling every 18 months and has remained there through the
date of this document. See "The New Hacker's Dictionary", Third
Edition, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-18178-9, Eric S. Raymondm Raymond, 1996.
[ORMAN] - "Determining Strengths For Public Keys Used For Exchanging
Symmetric Keys", draft-orman-public-key-lengths-*.txt, Hilarie Orman,
Paul Hoffman, work in progress.
[RFC 1750] - "Randomness Requirements for Security", D. Eastlake, S.
Crocker, J. Schiller, December 1994.
[RSA BULL1] - "Suggestions for Random Number Generation in Software",
RSA Laboratories Bulletin #1, January 1996.
[RSA BULL13] - "A Cost-Based Security Analysis of Symmetric and
Asymmetric Key Lengths", RSA Laboratories Bulletin #13, Robert
Silverman, April 2000 (revised November 2001).
[SBOX1] - "Practical s-box design", S. Mister, C. Adams, Selected
Areas in Cryptography, 1996.
[SBOX2] - "Perfect Non-linear S-boxes", K. Nyberg, Advances in
Cryptography - Eurocrypt '91 Proceedings, Springer-Verland, 1991.
[SCHNEIER] - "Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source
Code in C", 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1996, Bruce Schneier.
[SHANNON] - "The Mathematical Theory of Communication", University of
Illinois Press, 1963, Claude E. Shannon. (originally from: Bell
System Technical Journal, July and October 1948)
[SHIFT1] - "Shift Register Sequences", Aegean Park Press, Revised
Edition 1982, Solomon W. Golomb.
[SHIFT2] - "Cryptanalysis of Shift-Register Generated Stream Cypher
Systems", Aegean Park Press, 1984, Wayne G. Barker.
[SHA-1] - "Secure Hash Standard (SHA-1)", United States of American, US National Institute of
Science and Technology, Federal Information
Processing Standard (FIPS) FIPS 180-1, April 1993.
- RFC 3174, "US Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA1)", D. Eastlake,
P. Jones, September 2001.
[SHA-2] - "Secure Hash Standard", Draft (SHA-2156/384/512), Federal
Information Processing Standard US
National Institute of Science and Technology, FIPS 180-2, not yet
issued.
[SSH] - draft-ietf-secsh-*, work in progress.
[STERN] - "Secret Linear Congruential Generators are not
Cryptograhically
Cryptographically Secure", Proceedings of IEEE STOC, 1987, J. Stern.
[TLS] - RFC 2246, "The TLS Protocol Version 1.0", T. Dierks, C.
Allen, January 1999.
[USENET] - RFC 977, "Network News Transfer Protocol", B. Kantor, P.
Lapsley, February 1986.
- RFC 2980, "Common NNTP Extensions", S. Barber, October
2000.
[VON NEUMANN] - "Various techniques used in connection with random
digits", von Neumann's Collected Works, Vol. 5, Pergamon Press, 1963,
J. von Neumann.
[X9.17] - "American National Standard for Financial Institution Key
Management (Wholesale)", American Bankers Association, 1985.
[X9.82] - "Random Number Generation", ANSI X9F1, work in progress.
Authors Addresses
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Motorola Laboratories
155 Beaver Street
Milford, MA 01757 USA
Telephone: +1 508-786-7554 (w)
+1 508-634-2066 (h)
EMail: Donald.Eastlake@motorola.com
Jeffrey I. Schiller
MIT, Room E40-311
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02139-4307 USA
Telephone: +1 617-253-0161
E-mail: jis@mit.edu
Steve Crocker
EMail: steve@stevecrocker.com
File Name and Expiration
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