IPSEC Working Group H. K. Orman INTERNET-DRAFT Dept. of Computer Science, Univ. of Arizonadraft-ietf-ipsec-oakley-00.txt Februarydraft-ietf-ipsec-oakley-01.txt May 1996 TheOakleyOAKLEY Key Determination Protocol<draft-ietf-ipsec-oakley-00.txt><draft-ietf-ipsec-oakley-01.txt> This document describes a protocol, named OAKLEY, by which two authenticated parties can agree on secure and secret keying material. The basic mechanism is the Diffie-Hellman key exchange algorithm.ThisThe OAKLEY protocol supports Perfect Forward Secrecy, compatibility with the ISAKMP protocol for managing security associations,user- defineduser-defined abstract group structures for use with the Diffie-Hellman algorithm, key updates, and incorporation of keys distributed via out-of-band mechanisms. Status of this Memo This document is being distributed to members of the Internet community in order to solicit their comments on the protocol described in it. This draft expires six months from the day of issue. The expiration date will be August 24, 1996. Required text: This document is an Internet-Draft. Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute working documents as Internet-Drafts. Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use Internet- Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as ``work in progress.'' To learn the current status of any Internet-Draft, please check the ``1id-abstracts.txt'' listing contained in the Internet- Drafts Shadow Directories on ftp.is.co.za (Africa), nic.nordu.net (Europe), munnari.oz.au (Pacific Rim), ds.internic.net (US East Coast), or ftp.isi.edu (US West Coast). Distribution of this memo is unlimited. 1. INTRODUCTION Key establishment is the heart of data protection that relies on cryptography, and it is an essential component of the packet protection mechanisms described in [RFC1825, RFC1826, RFC1827], for example. A scalable and secure key distribution mechanism for the Internet is a necessity. The goal of this protocol is to provide that mechanism, coupled with a great deal of cryptographic strength. The Diffie-Hellman key exchange algorithm provides such a mechanism. It allows two parties to agree on a shared value without requiring encryption. The shared value is immediately available for use in encrypting subsequent conversation, e.g. data transmission and/or authentication. The STS protocol [STS] provides a demonstration of how to embed the algorithm in a secure protocol, one that ensures that in addition to securely sharing a secret, the two parties can be sure of each other's identities, even when an active attacker exists. BecausethisOAKLEY is a generic key exchange protocol, and because the keys that it generates might be used for encrypting data with a long privacy lifetime, 20 years or more, it is important that the algorithms underlying the protocol be able to ensure the security of the keys for that period of time, based on the best prediction capabilities available for seeing into the mathematical future. The protocol therefore has two options for adding to the difficulties faced by an attacker who has a large amount of recorded key exchange traffic at his disposal (a passive attacker). These options are useful for deriving keys which will be used for encryption. The OAKLEY protocol is related to STS, sharing the similarity ofdoing key exchange firstauthenticating the Diffie-Hellman exponentials andencrypted authentication next,using them for determining a shared key, and also of achieving Perfect Forward Secrecy for the shared key, but itextendsdiffers from the STS protocol infiveseveral ways. The first is the addition of a weakauthenticationaddress identification mechanism ("cookies", described by Phil Karn [Photuris]) to help avoid denial of service attacks. The second extension is to allow the two parties to select mutually agreeable supporting algorithms for the protocol: the encryption method, the key derivation method, and the authentication method. Thirdly, theprotocol provides Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS) in its standard modeauthentication does not depend on encryption using the Diffie-Hellman exponentials; instead, the authentication validates the binding ofoperation; with PFS,thesecurityexponentials to the identities of theshared key against passive attacks isparties. The protocol does notdependent on other any other secret.require the two parties compute the shared exponentials prior to authentication. This protocol adds additional security to the derivation of keys meant for use with encryption (as opposed to authentication) by including a dependence on an additional algorithm. The derivation of keys for encryption is made to depend not only on the Diffie- Hellman algorithm, but also on the cryptographic method used to securely authenticate the communicating parties to each other. Finally, this protocol explicitly defines how the two parties can select the mathematical structures (group representation and operation) for performing the Diffie-Hellman algorithm; they can use standard groups or define their own. User-defined groups provide an additional degree of long-term security. OAKLEY has severalmodesoptions for distributing keys. In addition to the classic Diffie-Hellman exchange, this protocolhas a mode of use for derivingcan be used to derive a new key froma pre-existing key,an existing key anda mode for distributingto distribute an externally derived key by encrypting it. The protocol allows two parties to use all or some of the anti- clogging and perfect forward secrecy features. It also permits the use of authentication based on symmetric encryption or non-encryption algorithms. This flexibility is included in order to allow the parties to use the features that are best suited to their security and performance requirements. This document draws extensively in spirit and approach from the Photuris draft by Karn and Simpson [Photuris] (and from discussions with the authors), specifics of the ISAKMP draft by Schertler et al. [ISAKMP], and it was also influenced by papers by Paul van Oorschot and Hugo Krawcyzk. 2. The Protocol Outline 2.1 General Remarks The OAKLEY protocol is used to establish a shared key with an assigned identifier and associated authenticated identities for the two parties.Subsequent stages of the protocol may derive other keys from a named key and assign an identifier to the new key.The name of the key can be used later to derive security associations for the RFC1826 and RFC1827 protocols (AH and ESP) or to achieve other network security goals. Each key is associated with algorithms that are used for authentication, privacy, and one-way functions. These areanciliaryancillary algorithms for OAKLEY; their appearance in subsequent security association definitions derived with other protocols is neither required nor prohibited. The specification of the details of how to apply an algorithm to data is called a transform. This document does not supply the transform definitions; they will be in separate RFC's. The anti-clogging tokens, or "cookies", provide a weak form ofauthenticationsource address identification for both parties; the cookie exchange can be completed before theymustperform the computationally expensive part of the protocol(the(large integer exponentiations). It is important to note that OAKLEY uses the cookies for two purposes: anti-clogging and key naming. The two parties to the protocol each contribute one cookie at the initiation of key establishment; the pair of cookies becomes the key identifier (KEYID), a reusable name for the keying material. Because of this dual role, we will use the notation for the concatenation of the cookies ("COOKIE-I, COOKIE-R") interchangeably with the symbol "KEYID". OAKLEY is designed to be a compatible component of the ISAKMP protocol [ISAKMP], which runs over the UDP protocol using a well- known port (see the RFC on port assignments, STD02-RFC-1700). The only technical requirement for the protocol environment is that the underlying protocol stack must be able to supply the Internet address of the remote party for each message. Thus, OAKLEYcancould, in theory, be used directly over the IP protocolas protocol id [TBD]or overthe UDP protocol. In the latter case, the only addressing requirement is thatUDP, if suitable protocolexchanges be initiated by using the OAKLEY well-knownor port[TBD] in the destination address.number assignments were available. The machine running OAKLEY must provide a good random number generator, as described inRFCxxxx,[RFC1750], as the source of random numbers required in this protocol description. Any mention of a "nonce" implies that the nonce value is generated by such a generator. The same is true for "pseudorandom" values. 2.2 Notation The section describes the notation used in this document for message sequences and content. 2.2.1 Message descriptions The protocol exchanges below are written in an abbreviated notation that is intended to convey the essential elements of the exchange in a clear manner. A brief guide to the notation follows. The detailed formats and assigned values are given in the appendices. In order to represent message exchanges succinctly, this document uses an abbreviated notation that describes each message in terms of its source and destination and relevant fields. Arrows ("->") indicate whether the message sent from the initiator to the responder, or vice versa ("<-"). The fields in the message are named and comma separated. The protocol uses the convention that the first several fields constitute a fixed header format for all messages. For example, consider a HYPOTHETICAL exchange of messages involving a fixed format message, the four fixed fields being two "cookies", the third field being a message type name, the fourth field being a multi-precision integer representing a power of a number: Initiator Responder -> Cookie-I, 0,IREQ,OK_KEYX, g^x -> <- Cookie-R, Cookie-I,IRES,OK_KEYX, g^y <- The notation describes a two message sequence. The initiator begins by sending a message with 4 fields to the responder; the first field has the unspecified value "Cookie-I", second field has the numeric value 0, the third field indicates the message type isIREQ,OK_KEYX, the fourth value is an abstract group element g to the x'th power. The second line indicates that the responder replies with value "Cookie-R" in the first field, a copy of the "Cookie-I" value in the second field, message typeIRES,OK_KEYX, and the number g raised to the y'th power. Thevalues IRES and IREQ arevalue OK_KEYX is in capitals to indicate thatthey areit is a uniqueconstantsconstant (constants are defined the appendices). Variable precision integers with length zero are null values for the protocol. Sometimes the protocol will indicate that an entire payload (usually the Key Exchange Payload) has null values. The payload is still present in the message, for the purpose of simplifying parsing. 2.2.2 Guide to symbols Cookie-I and Cookie-R (or CKY-I and CKY-R) are 64-bit pseudo-random numbers. The generation method must ensure with high probability that the numbers used for each IP remote address are unique over some previous time period, such as one hour.DOI is the Domain of Interpretation; see appendix I. The domains are statically assigned numbers that indicate classes of cryptographic service -- particularly the strength of the algorithm.KEYID is the concatenation of the initiator and responder cookies and the domain of interpretation; it is the name of keying material. sKEYID is used to denote the keying material named by the KEYID. It is never transmitted, but it is used in various calculations performed by the two parties.IREQ, IREP, IKERQ,OK_KEYX andIKERSOK_NEWGRP are distinct messageidentifiers. Auth/Priv (or A/P)types. IDP isthe encoded choice for the intended use of the keying material; either authenticationa bit indicating whether orprivacy.not material after the encryption boundary (see appendix D), is encrypted. g^x and g^y are encodings of group elements, where g is a special group element indicated in the group description (see AppendixGroup Descriptors)A) and g^x indicates that element raised to the x'th power. The type of the encoding is either a variable precision integer or a pair of such integers, as indicated in the group operation in the group description. Note that we will write g^xy as a short-hand for g^(xy). SeeAppenixAppendix J for references that describe implementing large integer computations and the relationship between various group definitions and basic arithmetic operations. EHAO is a list of encryption/hash/authentication choices. Each item is a pair of values: a class name and an algorithm name. EHAS is a set of three items selected from the EHAO list, one from each of the classes for encryption, hash, authentication. GRP is a name (32-bit value) for the group and its relevant parameters: the size of the integers, the arithmetic operation, and the generator element. There are a few pre-defined GRP's (for 768 bit modular exponentiation groups, 1024 bit modexp, 2048 bit modexp, 155-bit elliptic curve, see Appendix H), but participants can share other group descriptions in a later protocol stage (see the section NEW GROUP). It is important to separate notion of the GRP from the group descriptor (Appendix A); the former is a name for the latter. The symbol vertical bar "|" is used to denote concatenation of bit strings. Fields are concatenated using their encoded form as they appear in their payload. Ni and Nr are nonces selected by the initiator and responder, respectively. ID(I) and ID(R) are the identities to be used in authenticating the initiator and responder respectively. E{x}Ki indicates the encryption of x using the public key of the initiator. Encryption is done using the algorithm associated with the authentication method; usually this will be RSA. S{x}Ki indicates the signature over x using the private key (signing key) of the initiator. Signing is done using the algorithm associated with the authentication method; usually this will be RSA or DSS. prf(a, b) denotes the result of applying pseudo-random function "a" to data "b". One may think of "a" as a key or as a value that characterizes the function prf; in the latter case it is the index into a family of functions. prf(0, b) denotes the application of a one-way function to data "b". The similarity with the previous notation is deliberate and indicates that a single algorithm, e.g. MD5, might will used for both purposes. In the first case a "keyed" MD5 transform would be used with key "a"; in the second case the transform would have the fixed key value zero, resulting in a one-way function. The term "transform" is used to refer to functions defined in auxiliary RFC's. The the transform RFC's will be drawn from those defined for IPSEC AH and ESP (see RFC1825 for the overall architecture encompassing these protocols). 2.3Main ModeThe Key Exchange Message Overview The goal ofMain Modekey exchange processing isto establishthe secure establishment of common keying information state in the two parties. This state information is a key name, secret keying material, the identification of the two parties, and three algorithms for use during authentication:encryption, hashing,encryption (for privacy of the identities of the two parties), hashing (a pseudorandom function for protecting the integrity of the messages andauthentication.for authenticating message fields), and authentication (the algorithm on which the mutual authentication of the two parties is based). The encodings and meanings for these choices are presented inan Appendix. Main ModeAppendix B. The main mode exchange has five optional features: stateless cookie exchange, perfect forward secrecy for the keying material, secrecy for the identities, perfect forward secrecy for identity secrecy, use of signatures (for non-repudiation). The two parties can use all or none of these features. The general outline of processing isalways followedthat the Initiator of the exchange begins byAuthentication,specifying asdescribedmuch information as he wishes in his first message. The Responder replies, supplying as much information as he wishes. The two sides exchange messages, supplying more information each time, until their requirements are satisfied. The choice of how much information to include in each message depends on which options are desirable. For example, if stateless cookies are not a requirement, and identity secrecy and perfect forward secrecy for theAuthenticationkeying material are not requirements, and if non- repudiatable signatures are acceptable, then the exchange can be completed in three messages. Additional features may increase the number of roundtrips needed for the keying material determination. ISAKMP provides fields for specifying the security association parameters for use with the AH and ESP protocols. These security association payload types are specified in the ISAKMP draft; the payload types can be protected with OAKLEY keying material and algorithms, but this document does not discuss their use. 2.3.1 The Essential Key Exchangesection. However, seeMessage Fields There are 12 fields in an OAKLEY key exchange message. Not all the fields are relevant in every message; if a field is not relevant it can have a null value or not be present (no payload). CK-I originator cookie. CK-R responder cookie. MSGTYPE for key exchange, will be ISA_KE&AUTH_REQ or ISA_KE&AUTH_REP; for new group definitions, will be ISA_NEW_GROUP_REQ or ISA_NEW_GROUP_REP GRP the name of the Diffie-Hellman group used for the exchange g^x (or g^y) variable length integer representing a power of group generator EHAO or EHAS encryption, hash, authentication functions, offered and selected IDP an indicator as to whether or not encryption with g^xy follows (perfect forward secrecy for ID's) ID(I) the identity for the Initiator ID(R) the identity for the Responder Ni nonce supplied by the Initiator Nr nonce supplied by the Responder The construction of the cookies is implementation dependent. Phil Karn has recommended making them the result of a one-way function applied to a secret value (changed periodically), the local and remote IP address, and the local and remote UDP port. In this way, the cookies remain stateless and expire periodically. Note that with OAKLEY, this would cause the KEYID's derived from the secret value to also expire, necessitating thesectionremoval of any state information associated with it. In order to support pre-distributed keys, we recommend that implementations reserved some portion of their cookie space to permanent keys. The encoding of these depends only on the local implementation. The encryption functions used with OAKLEY must be cryptographic transforms which guarantee privacy and integrity for the message data. Merely using DES in CBC mode is not permissible. The MANDATORY and OPTIONAL transforms will include any that satisfy this criteria and are defined for use with RFC1827 (ESP). The one-way (hash) functions used with OAKLEY must be cryptographic transforms which can be used as either keyed hash (pseudo-random) or non-keyed transforms. The MANDATORY and OPTIONAL transforms will include any that are defined for use with RFC1826 (AH). Where nonces are indicated, they will be variable precision integers with an entropy value that matches the "strength" attribute of the GRP used with the exchange. If no GRP is indicated, the nonces must be at least 90 bits long. The pseudo-random generator for the nonce material should start with initial data that has at least 90 bits of entropy; see RFC1750. 2.3.2 Mapping to ISAKMP Message Structures All the OAKLEY message fields correspond to ISAKMP message payloads or payload components. The relevant payload fields are the SA payload, the AUTH payload, the Certificate Payload, the Key Exchange Payload. Some of the ISAKMP header and payload fields will have constant values when used with OAKLEY: DOI, the Domain of Interpretation, will have the value INTERNET. In this document, the DOI will not be mentioned; it is assumed that the software implementing OAKLEY will always be in the IPv4 or IPv6 DOI. Unless otherwise noted, the Key Exchange Identifier is Oakley MainModeMode. In the SA Payload, the Situation is ISAKMPID. This value is fixed at a constant value because Oakley uses the ID fields in AUTH payload to identify the two parties. In the following we indicate where each OAKLEY field appears in the ISAKMP message structure. CK-I ISAKMP header CK-R ISAKMP header MSGTYPE Message Type in ISAKMP header GRP SA payload, Proposal section g^x (or g^y) Key Exchange Payload, encoded as a variable precision integer EHAO and EHAS SA payload, Proposal section IDP A bit in the RESERVED field in the AUTH header ID(I) AUTH payload, Identity field ID(R) AUTH payload, Identity field Ni AUTH payload, Nonce Field Nr AUTH payload, Nonce Field S{...}Kx AUTH payload, Data Field prf{K,...} AUTH payload, Data Field 2.4 The Key Exchange Protocol The exact number and content of messages exchanged during an OAKLEY key exchange depends on which options the Initiator and Responder want to use. A key exchange can be completed withprivatethree or more messages, depending on those options. The three components of the key determination protocol are the 1. cookie exchange (optionally stateless) 2. Diffie-Hellman half-key exchange (optional, but essential for perfect forward secrecy) 3. authentication (options: privacy for ID's, privacy for ID's with PFS, non-repudiatable) The initiator can supply as little information as a bare exchange request, carrying no additional information. On the other hand the initiator can begin by supplying all of the information necessary for the responder to authenticate the request and complete the key determination quickly, if the responder chooses to accept this method. If not, the responder can reply with a minimal amount of information (at the minimum, a cookie). The Initiator is responsible for retransmitting messages if the protocol does not terminate in a timely fashion. The Responder must therefore avoid discarding reply information until it is acknowledged by Initiator in the course of continuing the protocol. The remainder of this section contains examples demonstrating how to use OAKLEY options. 2.4.1 An Aggressive Example The following example indicates how two parties can complete a key exchange in two messages. The identities are not secret, the derived keying material is protected by PFS. By using digital signatures, the two parties will have a proof of communication that can be recorded and presented later to a third party. The keying material implied by the groupdefinitions.exponentials is not needed for completing the exchange. If it is desirable to defer the computation, the implementation can save the "x" and "g^y" values and mark the keying material as "uncomputed". It can be computed from this information later. Initiator Responder --------- --------- ->Cookie-I,CKY-I, 0,DOI, IREQ, A/P,OK_KEYX, GRP,EHAOg^x, EHAO, NIDP, -> ID(I), ID(R), Ni, 0, S{ID(I) | ID(R) | Ni | 0 | GRP | g^x | EHAO}Ki <-Cookie-R, Cookie-I, DOI, IKREQ, A/P,CKY-R, CKY-I, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^y,EHASEHAS, NIDP, ID(R), ID(I), Nr, Ni, S{ID(R) | ID(I) | Nr | Ni | GRP | g^y | EHAS}Kr <- ->Cookie-I, Cookie-R, DOI, IKRES, g^xCKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^x, EHAO, NIDP, -> ID(I), ID(R), Ni, Nr, S{ID(I) | ID(R) | Ni | Nr | GRP | g^y | EHAO}Ki NB "NIDP" means that the PFS option for hiding identities is not used. i.e., the identities are not encrypted using g^xy NB Fields are concatenated using their encoded form as they appear in their payload. The result of this exchange is a key with KEYID = CKY-I|CKY-R and value sKEYID = prf(Ni | Nr, g^xy | CKY-I | CKY-R). The processing outline foreach stage of the protocolthis exchange is as follows: Initiation TheinitiatorInitiator generates a unique cookie and associates it with the expected IP address of the responder, and its chosen state information:DOI, Auth/Priv,GRP, a pseudo-randomly selected exponent x, g^x, EHAO list, nonce, identities. The first authentication choice in the EHAO list is an algorithm that supports digital signatures, and this is used to sign the ID's and the nonce and group id. The initiator further notes that the key is in the initial state of "unauthenticated", and sets a timer for possible retransmission and/or termination of the request.The responderWhen the Responder receivesIREQthe message, he may choose to ignore all the information anddoestreat it as merely a request for a cookie, creating no state. If CKY-I is not already in use by thefollowing: Generatessource address in the IP header, the responder generates a unique cookie,Cookie-R, associatesCKY-R. The next steps depend on thetriple (Cookie-I, Cookie-R, DOI)Responder's preferences. The minimal required response is to reply with theAuth/Priv choice,first cookie field set to zero and CKY-R in thegroup GRPsecond field. For this example we will assume that responder is more aggressive (for the alternatives, see section 6) and accepts theIP addressfollowing: group with identifier GRP, first authentication choice (which must be the digital signature method used to sign the Initiator message), lack of perfect forward secrecy for protecting theresponder,identities, identity ID(I) andputsidentity ID(R) In this example thenetwork addressResponder decides to accept all the information offered by the initiator. It validates the signature over the signed portion of themessage intomessage, and associate the pair (CKY-I, CKY-R) with the following stateand, notes thatinformation: thekey is insource and destination network addresses of theinitialmessage key state of"unauthenticated", and selects one"unauthenticated" the first algorithm fromeach class intheEHAO (encryption- hash-authentication algorithm offers) list, and selectsauthentication offer group GRP, ag^y"y" exponent value in group GRP, andassociates it withg^x from thecurrent state,message the nonce Ni andsetsa pseudorandomly selected value Nr a timer for possibleretransmission,destruction of the state. The Responder computes g^y, forms the reply message, and then signs the state information with the private key of ID(R) and sends it to theIKREQ message.Initiator. In this example, to expedite the protocol, the Responder implicitly accepts the first algorithm in the Authentication class of the EHAO list. This because he cannot validate the Initiator signature without accepting the algorithm for doing the signature. TheinitiatorResponder's EHAS list will also reflect his acceptance. The Initiator receives theIKREQreply message and validates thatCookie-ICKY-I is a valid association for the network address of the incoming message, adds theCookie-RCKY-R value to the state for the pair(Cookie-I,(CKY-I, network address), and associates all state information with the pair(Cookie-I, Cookie-R DOI),(CKY-I, CKY-R), validates the signature of the responder over the state information (should validation fail, the message is discarded) adds g^y to its state information,chooses an exponent x and corresponding g^x value,saves the EHA selections in the state, optionally computes(g^x)^y(g^y)^x (= g^xy)at this point, or(this can be deferred until after sending the reply message), sends theIKRES message. The responder receivesreply message, signed with theIKRES message and validatespublic key of ID(I), marks theCookie pair againstKEYID (CKY-I|CKY-R) as authenticated, and composes thenetwork address forreply message and signature. When theincoming messages, computes (g^y)^x (= g^yx = g^xy). The responder can upgradeResponder receives theinitiator's A/P choice from Authentication to Privacy;Initiator message, and if theinitiator must cooperate. If privacysignature isa requirement, then encryptionvalid, it marks the key as being in thealgorithm indicated byauthenticated state. It should compute g^xy and associate it with theEHA class will affect subsequent messages ofKEYID. Note that although PFS for identity protection is not used, PFS for theexchange. The cookiesderived keying material is still present because the Diffie- Hellman half-keys g^x andmessage type word will beg^y are exchanged. Even if the Responder onlynon- encrypted partaccepts some ofthose messages (see Appendix Message Formats fortheencryption boundary). Note thatInitiator information, the Initiatormust andwill consider the protocol to be progressing. The Initiator should assume that fields that were not accepted by the Respondermust agree on one set of EHA algorithms; there iswere notone set forrecorded by the Responder. If the Responderand one fordoes not accept theInitiator. The Initiator must include at least MD5aggressive exchange andDES inselects another algorithm for theinitial offer. Both parties computeA function, then theshared key material sKEYID as hash(g^xy | Cookie-I | Cookie-R) where "hash" isprotocol will not continue using the signature algorithm or the signature value from the first message. 2.4.1.1 Fields Not Present If the Responder does not accept all the fields offered by the Initiator, he should include null values for those fields inclass "hash" selectedhis response. Section 6 has guidelines on how to select fields inthe EHA list.a "left-to-right" manner. If a field is not accepted, then it and all following fields must have null values. Theinitiator considers the ability ofResponder should not record any information that it does not accept. If theresponderID's and nonces have null values, there will not be a signature over these null values. 2.4.1.2 Signature via Pseudo-Random Functions The aggressive example is written torepeat Cookie-I as weak evidencesuggest that public key technology is used for themessage originates fromsignatures. However, a"live" correspondent onpseudorandom function can be used, if thenetworkparties have previously agreed to such a scheme and have a shared key. If thecorrespondentfirst proposal in the EHAO list is an "existing key" method, then the KEYID named in that proposal will supply the keying material for the "signature" which is computed using the "H" algorithm associated with theresponder's network address. The responder makes similar assumptions when Cookie-R is repeated toKEYID. Suppose theresponder. All messages except IREQ messages must have valid cookies; informationfirst proposal inviolating messages cannot be used for any OAKLEY operations. 2.3.1 Retransmission, Timeouts,EHAO is EXISTING-KEY, 32 andError Messages Retransmissions due to failure to elicit an expected response intheappropriate time interval must be handled gracefully"H" algorithm for KEYID 32 is MD5-HMAC, byboth parties. Either party may destroyprior negotiation. The keying material is some string of bits, call it sK32. Then in thecurrent state and optionally send an errorfirst messageat any pointin theprotocol. The responder can explicitly rejectaggressive exchange, where theinitial request for several reasons: no support for a well-known but optional group, a malformed EHA list, or a temporary lack of resources, for example. The exact format for error messages is TBD. 2.3.2 ISAKMP Compatibility In addition to Main Mode, this document describes three other key determination methods. Each methodsignature S{ID(I), ID(R), Ni, 0, GRP, g^x, EHAO}Ki isintended to constitute a Key Exchange Interface (KEI) that could be used with ISAKMP; each method also constitutes a protocol that couldindicated, the signature computation would beused independently from ISAKMP. The next method is described in order to establish anperformed by MD5-HMAC_func(KEY=sK32, DATA = ID(I) | ID(R) | Ni | 0 | GRP | g^x | EHAO) (The exactcorrespondence withdefinition of theinitial processingalgorithm corresponding to "MD5-HMAC- func" will appear in the RFC defining that transform). The result ofISAKMPthis computation appears indraft 03;thecookieAuthentication payload. 2.4.2 An Aggressive Example With Hidden Identities The following example indicates how two parties can complete a key exchangeandwithout using digital signatures. Public key cryptography hides theg^x exchangesidentities during authentication. The group exponentials aredone as separate steps. This orthogonality may be desirable to some implementors,exchanged anditauthenticated, but the implied keying material (g^xy) isthus included as a required OAKLEY mode. 2.3.2.1 ISAKMP Cookie/KE Mode The ISAKMP protocol draft [ISAKMP-03] separatesnot needed during thecookieexchange. This exchangeentirelyhas an important difference from theexchange of group elements. This is also allowableprevious signature scheme --- inOAKLEY. The following table illustratesthemessage sequence and fields roughlyfirst message, an identity for the responder is indicated asdescribed in ISAKMP-03. This sequence uses notation fromcleartext: ID(R'). However, theISAKMP-03 draft andidentity hidden with the public key cryptography isincludeddifferent: ID(R). This happens because the Initiator must somehow tell the Responder which public/private key pair to use formerelythe decryption, but at the same time, the identity is hidden by encryption with that public key. The Initiator might elect toillustrate how Oakley and ISAKMPforgo secrecy of the Responder identity, but this is undesirable. Instead, if there is a well-known identity for the Responder node, the public key for that identity can beclosely relatedused toeach other. A fuller treatment will appear later.encrypt the actual Responder identity. Initiator Responder ---------------------------- ->Cookie-I,CKY-I, 0,IREQI, SPI-I -> <- Cookie-R, Cookie-I, IRESI, SPI-R <- -> Cookie-I, Cookie-R, IKREQI, SPI-I,OK_KEYX, GRP, g^x,EHAOEHAO, NIDP, -> ID(R'), E{ID(I), ID(R), E{Ni}Kr}Kr' <-Cookie-R, Cookie-I, IKRESI, SPI-R,CKY-R, CKY-I, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^y,EHASEHAS, NIDP, E{ID(R), ID(I), Nr}Ki, prf(Kir, ID(R) | ID(I) | Nr | Ni | GRP | g^y | g^x) <-For compatibility with ISAKMP, the following message type value equivalences are required: IREQI == ISA_INIT_REQ IRESI == ISA_INIT_RESP IKREQI == ISA_KE_REQ IKRESI == ISA_KE_RESP Note-> CKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, GRP, 0, 0, NIDP, prf(Kir, ID(I)| ID(R) | Ni | Nr | GRP | g^x | g^y) -> Kir = prf(0, Ni | Nr) NB "NIDP" means that theISAKMP version 3 uses the GRPID fieldPFS option fora SPI field. Appendix C shows the correspondence of fields. Fields that arehiding identities is notmentionedused. NB The ID(R') value is included in themessage summaries above are must contain the value zero. 2.4AuthenticationAfterpayload as described in Appendix B. The result of this exchange is a key with KEYID = CKY-I|CKY-R and value sKEYID = prf(Ni | Nr, g^xy | CKY-I | CKY-R). The processing outline for this exchange is as follows: Initiation The Initiator generates a unique cookie and associates it with theshared keying materialexpected IP address of the responder, and itsidentifier are establishedchosen state information: GRP, g^x, EHAO list. The first authentication choice inMain Mode,the EHAO list is an algorithm that supports public key encryption. The Initiator also names the twoparties must establish theiridentities toeach other. The keying material cannotbe used forany trusted purpose untiltheauthentication is completed. Ifconnection and enters these into thepurpose ofstate. A well- known identity for thekeying materialresponder machine is also chosen, and the public key forencryption, thenthis identity is used to encrypt theidentitiesnonce Ni and the two connection identities. The Initiator further notes that the key is in the initial state of "unauthenticated", and sets a timer for possible retransmission and/or termination of theinitiatorrequest. When the Responder receives the message, he may choose to ignore all the information andrespondertreat it as merely a request for a cookie, creating no state. If CKY-I is not already in use by the source address in the IP header, the Responder generates a unique cookie, CKY-R. As before, the next steps depend on the responders preferences. The minimal required response is a message with the first cookie field set to zero and CKY-R in the second field. For this example we will assume that responder is more aggressive and accepts the following: group GRP, first authentication choice (which must behidden by encryptingthemessagespublic key encryption algorithm used to encrypt the payload), lack of perfect forward secrecy for protecting the identities, identity ID(I), identity ID(R) The Responder must decrypt the ID and nonce information, using the private key for the R' ID. After this, the private key for the R ID will be used to decrypt the nonce field. The Responder now associates the pair (CKY-I, CKY-R) with the following state information: the source and destination network addresses of the message key state of "unauthenticated" the first algorithmselectedfromthe encryption claseach class in the EHAOlist. The(encryption-hash- authenticationexchange not only hidesalgorithm offers) list group GRP and a y and g^y value in group GRP theidentitiesnonce Ni and a pseudorandomly selected value Nr a timer for possible destruction of thetwo parties, but it also avoids usingstate. The Responder then encrypts the state information with the public keytechnology that would provide a proof, verifiable by a third party,ofcommunication betweenID(I), forms theinitiator and responder. This techniqueprf value, andits justification are duesends it to[Krawcyzk]. 2.4.1 The Authentication Exchange The Authentication Exchange should be initiated after Main Mode.the Initiator. Thepurpose of itInitiator receives the reply message and validates that CKY-I is a valid association for the network address of the incoming message, adds the CKY-R value tochangethe state for the pair (CKY-I, network address), and associates all state information with the pair (CKY-I, CKY-R), decrypts the ID and nonce information checks the prf calculation (should this fail, the message is discarded) adds g^y to its state information, saves the EHA selections in the state, optionally computes (g^x)^y (= g^xy) (this may be deferred), and sends the reply message, encrypted with the public key of ID(R), and marks the KEYIDfrom Unauthenticated to Authenticated.(CKY-I|CKY-R) as authenticated. Whenusing Main Modethe Responder receives this message, it marks the key as being in the authenticated state. If it has not already done so, it should compute g^xy and associate it witha well-known group, The authentication MUST be completed before usingthe KEYID. The secret keying material sKEYID = prf(Ni | Nr, g^xy | CKY-I | CKY-R) Note that although PFS for identity protection is not used, PFS forany purpose, other than described in this section. The authentication sequence bindstheidentities ofderived keying material is still present because the Diffie- Hellman half-keys g^x and g^y are exchanged. 2.4.3 An Aggressive Example With Private Identities and Without Diffie- Hellman Considerable computational expense can be avoided if perfect forward secrecy is not a requirement for the session key derivation. The two parties can exchange nonces and secret key parts to achieve theKEYID. However, for mostauthenticationmethods, there will be two further steps: retrieving theand derive keying material. The long-term privacy of data protected with derived keying materialthat describesis dependent on thebinding betweenprivate keys of each of theidentityparties. In this exchange, the GRP has the value 0 and the field for the group exponential is used to hold a nonce value instead. As in the previous section, the first proposed algorithm must be a public key(e.g.encryption system; by responding with acertificate),cookie andvalidating that material (e.g. verifying the signature of the certifying authority). This section describesa non- zero exponential field, thebinding toResponder implicitly accepts theKEYID; subsequent sections discussfirst proposal and theformatslack of perfect forward secrecy for thedescriptive materialidentities andthe retrieval methods. The Authentication Exchange is carried out in the following classic Needham-Schroeder style:derived keying material. Initiator Responder ---------------------------- ->KEYID, IAUTH_REQ, ID[A]CKY-I, 0, OK_KEYX, 0, 0, EHAO, NIDP, -> ID(R'), E{ID(I), ID(R), sKi}Kr', prf(Kir, ID(R), ID(I) <-KEYID, IAUTH_RES, ID[B], ID[A], E[Nb]KA, hash(sKEYID | Nb | ID[A] | ID[B])<- CKY-R, CKY-I, OK_KEYX, 0, 0, EHAS, NIDP, E{ID(R), ID(I), sKr}Ki, prf(Kir, ID(R), ID(I), Nr, Ni) <- ->KEYID, IAUTH_PRF, E[Na]KB, hash(sKEYID | Na | Nb | ID[A],ID[B])CKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, EHAS, NIDP, prf(Kir, ID(I), ID(R), Ni, Nr) -><- KEYID, IAUTH_PRF_R, hash(sKEYID | Nb | Na | ID[B]Kir = prf(0, sKi |ID[A]) <-sKr) NB Thesymbol ID[A] means the encoding of the identity of the initiator,sKi and sKr values go into thesymbol ID[B]nonce fields. The change in notation isformeant to emphasize that their entropy is critical to setting theresponder. Seekeying material. NB "NIDP" means that thenext sectionPFS option fora discussionhiding identities is not used. The result of this exchange is a key with KEYID = CKY-I|CKY-R and value sKEYID = prf(Kir, CKY-I | CKY-R). 2.4.4 A Conservative Example In this example theencodingtwo parties are minimally aggressive; they use the cookie exchange to delay creation of state, and they use perfect forward secrecy to protect the identities. Thenotation E[Nb]KA meansresponder considers theencryptionability of thenonce supplied byinitiator to repeat CKY-R as weak evidence that theresponder encrypted usingmessage originates from a "live" correspondent on thekey belonging tonetwork and theinitiator. When public key technologycorrespondent isused for authentication, this encryptionassociated with the initiator's network address. The initiator makes similar assumptions when CKY-I isdone usingrepeated to thepublic key encryption algorithm.initiator. All messages must have either have valid cookies or at least one zero cookie. Ifsymmetric keysboth cookies areused,zero, this indicates a request for a cookie; if only theencryptioninitiator cookie isdone in the symmetric algorithm. The encryption of the nonceszero, it iscarried out in additiona response to a cookie request. Information in messages violating theencryption described next. The nonce encryption iscookie rules cannot be usedto validate identities;for any OAKLEY operations. Note that theprivacy encryption is to prevent disclosureInitiator must and Responder must agree on one set of EHA algorithms; there is not one set for thepurported identities ofResponder and one for thetwo parties. IfInitiator. The Initiator must include at least MD5 and DES in theAuth/Priv type of KEYIDinitial offer. Fields not indicated have null values. Initiator Responder --------- --------- -> 0, 0, OK_KEYX -> <- 0, CKY-R, OK_KEYX <- -> CKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^x, EHAO -> <- CKY-R, CKY-I, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^y, EHAS <- -> CKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, GRP, g^x, IDP*, ID(I), ID(R), E{Ni}Kr, -> <- CKY-R, CKY-I, OK_KEYX, GRP, 0 , 0, IDP, <- E{Nr, Ni}Ki, ID(R), ID(I), prf(Nr | Ni, GRP, g^xy, ID(R), ID(I)) -> CKY-I, CKY-R, OK_KEYX, GRP, 0 , 0, IDP, prf(Ni | Nr, GRP | g^xy | ID(I) | ID(R)) -> * when IDP isPrivacy, then these messagesin effect, authentication payloads are encrypted with the selected encryption algorithm using the keying material prf(0, g^xy). (The transform defining the encryption algorithmimplied bywill define how to select key bits from theKEYID. Thekeying material.) This encryptionboundaryisshowninAppendix C. The KEYIDaddition to andMessage Type word areafter any public key encryption. See Appendix B. Note the incleartext.first messages, several fields are omitted from the description. These fields are present as null values. Theencryption offirst exchange allows thenonces Na and Nb is done withResponder to use stateless cookies; if theprivacy algorithm established forresponder generates cookies in a manner that allows him to validate them without saving them, as in Photuris, then this is possible. Even if thekeyid. The key usedInitiator includes a cookie in his initial request, theencryption varies, depending onresponder can still use stateless cookies by merely omitting theauthentication type selected duringCKY-I from his reply and by declining to record theMain Mode. If pre-shared keys are used, thenInitiator cookie until it appears in a later message. After theencryptionexchange isdone with the pre-shared key. If public keys are used, thencomplete, both parties compute thepublicshared keyof the opposite partymaterial sKEYID as prf(Ni | Nr, g^xy | CKY-I | CKY-R) where "prf" isused.the pseudo-random function in class "hash" selected in the EHA list. As with the cookies, each party considers the ability of the remote side to repeat theNaNi orNbNr value as a proof thatKi,Ka, the public key of partyi,a, speaks for the remote party and establishes its identity.AfterIn analyzing this exchange, it is important to note that although theAuthentication ExchangeIDP option ensures that the identities are protected with an ephemeral key g^xy, the authentication itself does not depend on g^xy. It iscomplete,essential that thestate ofauthentication steps validate theKEYIDg^x and g^y values, and it ischanged from Unauthenticatedthus imperative that the authentication not involve a circular dependency on them. A third party could intervene with a "man-in-middle" scheme toAuthenticated,convince the initiator and responder to use different g^xy values; although such an attack might result in revealing thekeying material is ready for use. 2.4.1.1identities to the eavesdropper, the authentication would fail. 2.4.5 Extra Strength for Protection of Encryption KeysIf the Auth/Priv type associated with KEYID is Privacy, then after the authentication exchange is complete, theThe noncesNaNi andNbNr are used to provide an extra dimension of secrecy in deriving session keys.They are used as input to a hash function that derives the keying material: sKEYID <- hash(sKEYID | Na | Nb)This makes the secrecy of the key depend on two different problems: the discrete logarithm problem in the group G, and the problem of breaking the nonce encryption scheme. If RSA encryption is used, then this second problem is roughly equivalent to factoring the RSA public keys of both the initiator and responder.2.4.2 Formats ofFor authentication, the key type, the validation method, and the certification requirement must be indicated. 2.5 IdentityData Structures At this time, thereand Authentication 2.5.1 Identity In OAKLEY exchanges the Initiator offers Initiator and Responder ID's -- the former isno commonly accepted basisthe claimed identity fordetermining identities ontheInternet, soInitiator, and theprotocol must maintain roomlatter is the requested ID forflexibilitythe Responder. If neither ID is specified, the ID's are taken from the IP header source and destination addresses. If the Initiator doesn't supply a responder ID, the Responder can reply by naming any identity that the local policy allows. The Initiator can refuse acceptance by terminating the exchange. The Responder can also reply with a different ID than the Initiator suggested; the Initiator can accept this implicitly by continuing the exchange or refuse it by terminating (not replying). 2.5.2 Authentication The authentication of principals to one another is at the heart of any key exchange scheme. The Internet community must decide on a scalable standard for solving thispoint. There will beproblem, and OAKLEY must make use of that standard. At the time of this writing, there is no such standard, though several are emerging. This document attempts to describe how a handful of standards could be incorporated into OAKLEY, without attempting to pick and choose among them. The followingpossibilities:methods can appear in OAKLEY offers: a. Pre-sharedsymmetric keys Each pair ofKeys When two partieshashave arranged for a trusted method of distributing secret keys for their mutual authentication, they can be used for authentication. This has obvious scaling problems for large systems, but it is an acceptable interim solution for some situations. Support for pre-shared keys is REQUIRED. The encryption, hash, and authentication algorithm for use with a pre-shared key must be part of the state information distributed with the key itself. The pre-shared keys have a KEYID and keying material sKEYID; the KEYID is used in a pre-shared key authentication option offer. There can be more than one pre-shared key offer in a list. Because the KEYID persists over different invocations of OAKLEY (after a crash, etc.), it must occupy a reserved part of the KEYID space for the two parties. A few bits can be set aside in each party's "cookie space" to accommodate this. There is no certification authority for pre-shared keys. When a pre-shared key is used to generate an authentication payload, the certification authority is "None", the Authentication Type is "Preshared", and the payload contains the KEYID, encoded as two 64-bit quantities, and the result of applying the pseudorandom hash function to the message body with the sKEYID forming the key for the function SeeQuick Mode.Appendix B for details of formats for the Authentication Payload. b. DNS public keys Security extensions to the DNS protocol [DNSSEC] provide a convenient way to access public key information, especially for public keys associated with hosts. RSA keys are a requirement for secure DNS implementations; extensions to allow optional DSS keys are a near-term possibility. DNS KEY records have associated SIG records that are signed by a zone authority, and a hierarchy of signatures back to the root server establishes a foundation for trust. The SIG records indicate the algorithm used for forming the signature. OAKLEY implementations MUST support the use of DNS KEY and SIG records for authenticating with respect to IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and fully qualified domain names. However, implementations are not required to support any particular algorithm (RSA, DSS, etc.). c. RSA public keys w/o certification authority signature PGP [Zimmerman] uses public keys with an informal method for establishing trust. The format of PGP public keys and naming methodsiswill be described inAppendix PGP.a separate RFC. The RSA algorithm can be used with PGP keys for either signing or encryption; the authentication option should indicate either RSA-SIG or RSA-ENC, respectively. Support for this is OPTIONAL.c.d.1 RSA public keys w/ certificates There are various formats and naming conventions for public keys that are signed by one or more certification authorities. The Public Key Interchange Protocol discusses X.509 encodings and validation.i. The format for X.509 OAKLEY certificates is described in Appendix X.509.Support for this is OPTIONAL.d.d.2 DSS keys w/ certificates Encoding for the Digital Signature Standard with X.509 is described inAppendix H and in internet-draft-dss-00.txt. 2.4.2draft-ietf-ipsec-dss-cert-00.txt. Support for this is OPTIONAL; an ISAKMP Authentication Type will be assigned. 2.5.3 ValidatingIdentity Data StructuresAuthentication Keys The combination of the Authenticationalgorithm definesalgorithm, the Authentication Authority, the Authentication Type, and a key (usually public) define how tointerpretvalidate theidentity, its certificate,messages with respect to the claimed identity. The key information will be available either from a pre-shared key, or from some kind of certification authority. Generally the certification authority produces a certificate binding the entity name to a public key. OAKLEY implementations must be prepared to fetch and validate certificates before using thepreferred methodpublic key forfetchingOAKLEY authentication purposes. The ISAKMP Authentication Payload defines thecerificate if it is not included as part ofAuthentication Authority field for specifying theidentityauthority that must be apparent in theauthentication exchange.trust hierarchy for authentication. Oncethean appropriate certificate is obtained (see 2.4.3), the validation method will depend on the Authenticationalgorithm;Type; if it is PGP then the PGP signature validation routines can be called to satisfy the local web-of-trust predicates; if it is RSA with X.509 certificates, the certificate must be examined to see if the certification authority signature can be validated, and if the hierarchy is recognized by the local policy.At this time there is no required format or validation method. 2.4.32.5.4 Fetching Identity Objects In addition to interpreting the certificate or other data structure that contains an identity, users of OAKLEY must face the task of retrieving certificates that bind a public key to an identifier and also retrieving auxiliary certificates for certifying authorities or co-signers (as in the PGP web of trust). Theretrieval method willISAKMP Credentials Payload can bespecified via an implicit attribute of the Auth class name.used to attach useful certificates to OAKLEY messages. The Credentials Payload is defined in Appendix B. Support for accessing and revoking public key certificates via the Secure DNS protocol [SECDNS] is MANDATORY forOakleyOAKLEY implementations. Other retrieval methods can be used when the AUTH class indicates a preference. The Public Key Interchange Protocol discusses a full protocol that might be used with X.509 encoded certificates.2.52.6 Interface to Cryptographic Transforms The keying material computed by the key exchange should have at least 90 bits of entropy, which means that it must be at least 90 bits in length. This may be more or less than is required for keying the encryption and/or pseudorandom function transforms. The transforms used with OAKLEY should have auxiliary algorithms which take a variable precision integer and turn it into keying material of the appropriate length. For example, a DES algorithm could take the low order 56 bits, a triple DES algorithm might use the following: K1 = low 56 bits of md5(0|sKEYID) K2 = low 56 bits of md5(1|sKEYID) K3 = low 56 bits of md5(2|sKEYID) The transforms will be called with the keying material encoded as a variable precision integer, the length of the data, and the block of memory with the data. Conversion of the keying material to a transform key is the responsibility of the transform. 2.7 Retransmission, Timeouts, and Error Messages If a response from the Responder is not elicited in an appropriate amount of time, the message should be retransmitted by the Initiator. These retransmissions must be handled gracefully by both parties; the Responder must retain information for retransmitting until the Initiator moves to the next message in the protocol or completes the exchange. Informational error messages present a problem because they cannot be authenticated using only the information present in an incomplete exchange; for this reason, the parties may wish to establish a default key for OAKLEY error messages. A possible method for establishing such a key is described in Appendix B, under the use of ISA_INIT message types. In the following the message type is OAKLEY Error, the KEYID supplies the H algorithm and key for authenticating the message contents; this value is carried in the Sig/Prf payload. The Error payload contains the error code and the contents of the rejected message. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! ! ~ Initiator-Cookie ~ / ! ! KEYID +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ \ ! ! ~ Responder-Cookie ~ ! ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Domain of Interpretation ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Message Type ! Exch ! Vers ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! SPI (unused) ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! SPI (unused) ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Error Payload ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Sig/prf Payload ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ The error message will contain the cookies as presented in the offending message, the message type OAKLEY_ERROR, and the reason for the error, followed by the rejected message. Error messages are informational only, and the correctness of the protocol does not depend on them. Error reasons: TIMEOUT exchange has taken too long, state destroyed AEH_ERROR an unknown algorithm appears in an offer GROUP_NOT_SUPPORTED GRP named is not supported EXPONENTIAL_UNACCEPTABLE exponential too large/small SELECTION_NOT_OFFERED selection does not occur in offer NO_ACCEPTABLE_OFFERS no offer meets host requirements AUTHENTICATION_FAILURE signature or hash function fails RESOURCE_EXCEEDED too many exchanges or too much state info NO_EXCHANGE_IN_PROGRESS a reply received with no request in progress 2.8 Additional Security for Privacy Keys: Private Groups If the two parties have need to use a Diffie-Hellman key determination scheme that does not depend on the standard group definitions, they have the option of establishing a private group. The authentication need not be repeated, because this stage of the protocol will be protected byencryption.a pre-existing authentication key. As an extra security measure, the two parties will establish a private name for the shared keying material, so even if they use exactly the same group to communicate with other parties, the re-use will not be apparent to passive attackers. Private groups have the advantage of making a widespread passive attack much harder by increasing the number of groups that would have to be exhaustively analyzed in order to recover a large number of session keys. This contrasts with the case when only one or two groups are ever used; in that case, one would expect that years and years of session keys would be compromised. There are two technical challenges to face: how can a particular user create a unique and appropriate group, and how can a second party assure himself that the proposed group is reasonably secure? The security of a modular exponentiation group depends on the largest prime factor of the group size. In order to maximize this, one can choose "strong" or Sophie-Germaine primes, P = 2Q + 1, where P and Q are prime. However, if P = kQ + 1, where k is small, then the strength of the group is still considerable. These groups are known as Schnorr subgroups, and they can be found with much less computational effort than Sophie-Germaine primes. Schnorr subgroups can also be validated efficiently by using probable prime tests. It is also fairly easy to find P, k, and Q such that the largest prime factor can be easily proven to be Q. We estimate that it would take about 10 minutes to find a new group of about 2^1024 elements, and this could be done once a day by a scheduled process; validating a group proposed by a remote party would take perhaps a minute on a 25 MHz RISC machine or a 66 MHz CISC machine. We note that validation is done only between previously mutually authenticated parties, and that a new group definition always follows and is protected by a key established using a well-known group. There are four points to keep in mind: a. The description and public identifier for the new group are protected by the well-known group. b. The responder can reject the attempt to establish the new group, either because he is too busy or because he cannot validate the largest prime factor as being sufficiently large. c. The new modulus and generator can be cached for long periods of time; they are not security critical and need not be associated with ongoing activity. d. Generating a new g^x value periodically will be more expensive if there are many groups cached; however, the importance of frequently generating new g^x values is reduced, so the time period can be lengthened correspondingly.2.5.12.8.1 Defining a New Group This section describes how to define a new group. The description of the group is hidden from eavesdroppers, and the identifier assigned to the group is unique to the two parties. Use of the new group for Diffie-Hellman key exchanges is described in the next section. The secrecy of the description and the identifier increases the difficulty of a passive attack, because if the group descriptor is not known to the attacker, there is no straightforward and efficient way to gain information about keys calculated using the group. Only the description of the new group need be encrypted in this exchange. The hash algorithm is implied by the OAKLEY session named by the group. The encryption is the authentication encryption function of the OAKLEY session. The descriptor of the new group is encoded in the new group payload. The nonces are encoded in the Auth Payload. Data beyond the encryption boundary is encrypted using the transform named by the KEYID. The following message use the ISAKMP Key Exchange Identifier OAKLEY New Group. To define a new modular exponentiation group: Initiator Responder --------- ---------- -> KEYID, -> INEWGRP,E[Desc(NewDesc(New Group),Na]Kb, hash(Desc(NewNa prf(sKEYID, Desc(New Group) | Na) <- KEYID, INEWGRPRS,E[Nb, Na]Ka, hash(NaNa, Nb prf(sKEYID, Na | Nb | Desc(New Group)) <- -> KEYID, INEWGRPACKhash(prf(sKEYID, Nb | Na | Desc(New Group)) -> These messages are encrypted at the encryption boundary using the key indicated. The hash value is placed in the "digital signature" field (see Appendix C).INEWGRP, INEWGRPRS, INEWGRPACK are distinct message identifiers Kb is the authentication key for B Ka is the authentication key for A These keys are derived during the authentication phase and are part of the state associated with the OAKLEY session named by the cookies. E[x]Ka indicates encryption of x using the initiator's key; Kb indicates the responder's key (if the encryption algorithm is symmetric one the keys will be identical). If Ka and Kb are public keys, then encryption will use the algorithm implied by the public key scheme, i.e., RSA encryption for RSA public keys.New GRP identifier = Na | Nb (the initiator and responder must use nonces that are distinct from anycookiesused for currentKEYID's; i.e., the initiator ensures that Na is distinct from any Cookie-I, the responder ensures that Nb is distinct from any Cookie-R).GRPID's. Desc(G) is the encoding of the descriptor for the group descriptor (see Appendix A for the format of a group descriptor) The two parties must store the mapping between the new group identifier GRP and the group descriptor Desc(New Group). They must also note the identities used for the KEYID and copy these to the state for the new group. Note that one could have the same group descriptor associated with several KEYID's. Pre-calculation of g^x values may be done based only on the group descriptor, not the private group name.2.62.8.2 Deriving a Key Using a Private Group Once a private group has been established, its group id can be used inMain Mode (or ISAKMP mode) to derive new keying material. The authentication exchange is unnecessary, becausethenew group establishment was done using an authenticated key. The identities used in thatkey exchangemust be carried overmessages in the GRP position. No changes tonew key. 2.7the protocol are required. 2.9 Quick Mode: New Keys FromOldOld, When an authenticated KEYID and associated keying material sKEYID already exist, it is easy to derive additional KEYID's andkeys,keys sharing similar attributes (GRP, EHA, etc.) using only hashing functions. The KEYID might be one that was derived in Main Mode, for example. On the other hand, the authenticated key may be a manually distributed key, one that is shared by the initiator and responder via some means external to OAKLEY. If thethedistribution method has formed the KEYID using appropriately unique values for the two halves(Cookie-I(CKY-I andCookie-R),CKY-R), then this method is applicable. In the following, the Key Exchange Identifier is OAKLEY Quick Mode. The nonces are carried in the Authentication Payload, and the prf value is carried in the Authentication Payload; the Authentication Authority is "None" and the type is "Pre-Shared". The protocol is: Initiator Responder --------- --------- -> KEYID, INEWKRQ,Na, hash(Na, sKEYID)Ni, prf(sKEYID, Ni) -> <- KEYID, INEWKRS,Nb, hash(1 | NaNr, prf(sKEYID, 1 |NbNr |sKEYID)Ni) <- -> KEYID, INEWKRP, 0,hash(1 | Nbprf(sKEYID, 0 |NaNi |sKEYID)Nr) -> The New KEYID, NKEYID, isNonceANi |NonceBNr sNKEYID =hash(sKEYID, Na, Nb)prf(sKEYID, Ni | Nr ) The identities and EHA values associated with NKEYID are the same as those associated with KEYID. Each party must validate the hash values beforechangingusing the new key for any purpose. 2.10 Defining and Using Pre-Distributed Keys If a key and an associated key identifier and state information have been distributed manually, then the key can be used for any OAKLEY purpose. The key must be associated withkeys. 2.8the usual state information: ID's and EHA algorithms. Local policy dictates when a manual key can be included in the OAKLEY database. For example, only privileged users would be permitted to introduce keys associated with privileged ID's, an unprivileged user could only introduce keys associated with her own ID. 2.11 Distribution of an External Key Once an OAKLEY session key andanciliaryancillary algorithms are established, the keying material and theencryption"H" algorithm can be used to distribute an externally generated key and to assign a KEYID to it. In the following, KEYID represents an existing, authenticated OAKLEY session key, and sNEWKEYID represents the externally generated keying material.OnlyIn thefirst two fields of each message are plaintext,following, therestKey Exchange Identifier isencrypted using the encryption algorithm associated withOAKLEY External Mode. The Key Exchange Payload contains theKEYID state.new key, which is protected Initiator Responder --------- --------- -> KEYID,INEWEXTKEY, Na, sNEWKEYIDIEXTKEY, Ni, prf(sKEYID, Ni) -> <- KEYID,INEWEXTKEYRQ, Nb, hash(Nb, Na, sNEWKEYID)IEXTKEY, Nr, prf(sKEYID, 1 | Nr | Ni) <- -> KEYID,INEWEXTKEYRS, hash(Na, Nb, sNEWKEYID)IEXTKEY, Kir xor sNEWKEYID*, prf(Kir, sNEWKEYID | Ni | Nr) -> Kir = prf(sKEYID, Ni | Nr) * this field is carried in the Key Exchange Payload. Each party must validate the hash values using thehash"H" function in the KEYID state before changing any key state information. The new key is recovered by the Responder by calculating the xor of the field in the Authentication Payload with the Kir value. The new key identifier, naming the keying material sNEWKEYID, ishash(prf(sKEYID, 1 |NaNi |Nb). 2.7.1 Retransmissions, Timeouts,Nr). Note that this exchange does not require encryption. Hugo Krawcyzk suggested the method andError Messages TBD 2.8.2its advantage. 2.11.1 Cryptographic Strength Considerations The strength of the key used to distribute the external key must be at least equal to the strength of the external key. Generally, this means that the length of the sKEYID material must be greater than or equal to the length of the sNEWKEYID material. The derivation of the external key, its strength or intended use are not addressed by this protocol; the parties using the key must have some other method for determining these properties. As of early 1996, it appears that for 90 bits of cryptographic strength, one should use a modular exponentiation group modulus of 2000 bits. For 128 bits of strength, a 3000 bit modulus is required. 3. Specifying and Deriving Security Associations When a security association is defined, only the KEYID need be given. The responder should be able to look up the state associated with the KEYID value and find the appropriate keying material, sKEYID. The OAKLEY protocol does not define security association encodings or message formats. These can be defined through a protocol such as ISAKMP. Compatibility with ISAKMP is a goal of the OAKLEY design, and coordination of the message formats and use of identifiers is an ongoing activity at this time. 4. ISAKMP Compatibility OAKLEY uses ISAKMP header and payload formats, as described in the text and in Appendix B. There are particular noteworthy extensions beyond the version 4 draft. 4.1 Authentication with Existing Keys In the case that two parties do not have suitable public key mechanisms in place for authenticating each other, they can use keys that were distributed manually. After establishment of these keys and their associated state in OAKLEY, they can be used for authentication modes that depend on signatures, e.g. Aggressive Mode. When an existing key is to appear in an offer list, it should be indicated with an Authentication Algorithm of ISAKMP_EXISTING. This value will be assigned in the ISAKMP RFC. When the authentication method is ISAKMP_EXISTING, the authentication authority will have the value ISAKMP_AUTH_EXISTING; the value for this field must not conflict with any authentication authority registered with IANA and will be defined in the ISAKMP RFC. The authentication payload will have two parts: the KEYID for the pre-existing key the identifier for the party to be authenticated by the pre- existing key. The pseudo-random function "H" in the state information for that KEYID will be the signature algorithm, and it will use the keying material for that key (sKEYID) when generating or checking the validity of message data. E.g. if the existing key has an KEYID denoted by KID and 128 bits of keying material denoted by sKID and "H" algorithm a transform named HMAC, then to generate a "signature" for a data block, the output of HMAC(sKID, data) will be the corresponding signature payload. The KEYID state will have the identities of the local and remote parties for which the KEYID was assigned; it is up to the local policy implementation to decide when it is appropriate to use such a key for authenticating other parties. For example, a key distributed for use between two Internet hosts A and B may be suitable for authenticating all identities of the form "alice@A" and "bob@B". 4.2 Third Party Authentication A local security policy might restrict key negotiation to trusted parties. For example, two OAKLEY daemons running with equal sensitivity labels on two machines might wish to be the sole arbiters of key exchanges between users with that same sensitivity label. In this case, some way of authenticating the provenance of key exchange requests is needed. I.e., the identities of the two daemons should be bound to a key, and that key will be used to form a "signature" for the key exchange messages. The Signature Payload, in Appendix B, is for this purpose. This payload names a KEYID that is in existence before the start of the current exchange. The "H" transform for that KEYID is used to calculate an integrity/authentication value for all payloads preceding the signature. Local policy can dictate which KEYID's are appropriate for signing further exchanges. 4.3 New Group Mode OAKLEY uses a new KEI for the exchange that defines a new group. 5. Security Implementation Notes Timing attacks that are capable of recovering the exponent value used in Diffie-Hellman calculations have been described by Paul Kocher [Kocher]. In order to nullify the attack, implementors must take pains to obscure the sequence of operations involved in carrying out modular exponentiations. A "blinding factor" can accomplish this goal. A group element, r, is chosen at random. When an exponent x is chosen, the value r^(-x) is also calculated. Then, when calculating (g^y)^x, the implementation will calculate this sequence: A = (rg^y) B = A^x = (rg^y)^x = (r^x)(g^(xy)) C = B*r^(-x) = (r^x)(r^-(x))(g^(xy)) = g^(xy) The blinding factor is only necessary if the exponent x is used more than 100 times (estimate by Richard Schroeppel). 6. OAKLEY Parsing and State Machine There are many pathways through OAKLEY, but they follow a left-to- right parsing patterns of the message fields as defined in section 2.1. The initiator decides on an initial message in the following order: 1. Offer a cookie. This is not necessary but it helps with aggressive exchanges. 2. Pick a group. The choices are the well-known groups or any private groups that may have been negotiated. The very first exchange between two Oakley daemons with no common state must involve a well-known group (0, meaning no group, is a well-known group). Note that the group identifier, not the group descriptor, is used in the message. If a non-null group will be used, it must be included with the first message specifying EHAO. It need not be specified until then. 3. If PFS will be used, pick an exponent x and present g^x. 4. Offer Encryption, Hash, and Authentication lists. 5. Use PFS for hiding the identities If identity hiding is not used, then the initiator has this option: 6. Name the identities and include authentication information The information in the authentication section depends on the first authentication offer. In this aggressive exchange, the Initiator hopes that the Responder will accept all the offered information and the first authentication method. The authentication method determines the authentication payload as follows: 1. Signing method. The signature will be applied to all the offered information. 2. A public key encryption method. The algorithm will be used to encrypt a nonce in the public key of the requested Responder identity. There are two cases possible, depending on whether or not identity hiding is used: a. No identity hiding. The ID's will appear as plaintext. b. Identity hiding. A well-known ID, call it R', will appear as plaintext in the authentication payload. It will be followed by two ID's and a nonce; these will be encrypted using the public key for R'. 3. A pre-existing key method. The pre-existing key will be used to encrypt a nonce. If identity hiding is used, the ID's will be encrypted in place in the payload, using the "E" algorithm associated with the pre-existing key. The Responder can accept all, part or none of the initial message. The Responder accepts as many of the fields as he wishes, using the same decision order as the initiator. At any step he can stop, implicitly rejecting further fields (which will have null values in his response message). The minimum response is a cookie and the GRP. 1. Accept cookie. The Responder may elect to record no state information until the Initiator successfully replies with a cookie chosen by the responder. If so, the Responder replies with a cookie, the GRP, and no other information. 2. Accept GRP. If the group is not acceptable, the Responder will not reply. The Responder may send an error message indicating the the group is not acceptable (modulus too small, unknown identifier, etc.) Note that "no group" has two meanings during the protocol: it may mean the group is not yet specified, or it may mean that no group will be used (and thus PFS is not possible). 3. Accept the g^x value. The Responder indicates his acceptance of the g^x value by including his own g^y value in his reply. He can postpone this by ignoring g^x and putting a zero length g^y value in his reply. 4. Accept one element from each of the EHA lists. The acceptance is indicated by a non-zero proposal. 5. If PFS for identity hiding is requested, then no further data will follow. 6. If the authentication payload is present, and if the first item in the offered authentication class is acceptable, then the Responder must validate/decrypt the information in the authentication payload and signature payload, if present. The Responder should choose a nonce and reply using the same authentication/hash algorithm as the Initiator used. The Initiator notes which information the Responder has accepted, validates/decrypts any signed, hashed, or encrypted fields, and if the data is acceptable, replies in accordance to the EHA methods selected by the Responder. The Initiator replies are distinguished from his initial message by the presence of the non-zero value for the Responder cookie. APPENDIX A Group Descriptors Three distinct group representations can be used with OAKLEY. Each group is defined by its group operation and the kind of underlying field used to represent group elements. The three types are modular exponentiation groups (named MODP herein), elliptic curve groups over the field GF[2^N] (named EC2N herein), and elliptic curve groups over GF[P] (named ECP herein) For each representation, many distinct realizations are possible, depending on parameter selection. With a few exceptions, all the parameters are transmitted as if they were non-negative multi-precision integers, using the format defined in this appendix (note, this is distinct from the encoding in Appendix D). Every multi-precision integer has a prefixed length field, even where this information is redundant. For the group type EC2N, the parameters are more properly thought of as very long bit fields, but they are represented as multi-precision integers, (with length fields, and right-justified). This is the natural encoding. MODP means the classical modular exponentiation group, where the operation is to calculate G^X (mod P). The group is defined by the numeric parameters P and G. P must be a prime. G is often 2, but may be a larger number. 2 <= G <= P-2. ECP is an elliptic curve group, modulo a prime number P. The defining equation for this kind of group is Y^2 = X^3 + AX + B The group operation is taking a multiple of an elliptic-curve point. The group is defined by 5 numeric parameters: The prime P, two curve parameters A and B, and a generator (X,Y). A,B,X,Y are all interpreted mod P, and must be (non-negative) integers less than P. They must satisfy the defining equation, modulo P. EC2N is an elliptic curve group, over the finite field F[2^N]. The defining equation for this kind of group is Y^2 + XY = X^3 + AX^2 + B (This equation differs slightly from the mod P case: it has an XY term, and an AX^2 term instead of an AX term.) We must specify the field representation, and then the elliptic curve. The field is specified by giving an irreducible polynomial (mod 2) of degree N. This polynomial is represented as an integer of size between 2^N and 2^(N+1), as if the defining polynomial were evaluated at the value U=2. For example, the field defined by the polynomial U^155 + U^62 + 1 is represented by the integer 2^155 + 2^62 + 1. The group is defined by 4 more parameters, A,B,X,Y. These parameters are elements of the field F[2^N], and can be though of as polynomials of degree < N, with (mod 2) coefficients. They fit in N-bit fields, and are represented as integers < 2^N, as if the polynomial were evaluated at U=2. For example, the field element U^2 + 1 would be represented by the integer 2^2+1, which is 5. The two parameters A and B define the curve. A is frequently 0. B must not be 0. The parameters X and Y select a point on the curve. The parameters A,B,X,Y must satisfy the defining equation, modulo the defining polynomial, and mod 2. Group descriptor formats:.sp. nfType of group: A two-byte field, assigned values for the types "MODP", "ECP", "EC2N" will be defined (see ISAKMP-04). Size of a field element, in bits. This is either Ceiling(log2 P) or the degree of the irreducible polynomial: a 32-bit integer. The prime P or the irreducible field polynomial: a multi-precision integer. The generator: 1 or 2 values, multi-precision integers. EC only: The parameters of the curve: 2 values, multi-precision integers. The following parameters are Optional (each of these may appear independently): a value of 0 may be used as a place-holder to represent an unspecified parameter; any number of the parameters may be sent, from 0 to 3. The largest prime factor: the encoded value that is the LPF of the group size, a multi-precision integer. EC only: The order of the group: multi-precision integer. (The group size for MODP is always P-1.) Strength of group: 32-bit integer. The strength of the group is approximately the number of key-bits protected. It is determined by the log2 of the effort to attack the group. It may change as we learn more about cryptography. This is a generic example for a "classic" modular exponentiation group: Group type: "MODP" Size of a field element in bits: Log2 (P) rounded *up*. A 32bit integer. Defining prime P: a multi-precision integer. Generator G: a multi-precision integer. 2 <= G <= P-2. <optional> Largest prime factor of P-1: the multi-precision integer Q Strength of group: a 32-bit integer. We will specify a formula for calculating this number (TBD). This is a generic example for elliptic curve group, mod P: Group type: "ECP" Size of a field element in bits: Log2 (P) rounded *up*, a 32 bit integer. Defining prime P: a multi-precision integer. Generator (X,Y): 2 multi-precision integers, each < P. Parameters of the curve A,B: 2 multi-precision integers, each < P. <optional> Largest prime factor of the group order: a multi-precision integer. Order of the group: a multi-precision integer. Strength of group: a 32-bit integer. Formula TBD. This is a specific example for elliptic curve group: Group type: "EC2N" Degree of the irreducible polynomial: 155 Irreducible polynomial: U^155 + U^62 + 1, represented as the multi-precision integer 2^155 + 2^62 + 1. Generator (X,Y) : represented as 2 multi-precision integers, each < 2^155. For our present curve, these are (decimal) 123 and 456. Each is represented as a multi-precision integer. Parameters of the curve A,B: represented as 2 multi-precision integers, each < 2^155. For our present curve these are 0 and (decimal) 471951, represented as two multi-precision integers. <optional> Largest prime factor of the group order: 3805993847215893016155463826195386266397436443, represented as a multi-precision integer. The order of the group: 45671926166590716193865565914344635196769237316 represented as a multi-precision integer. Strength of group: 76, represented as a 32-bit integer. The variable precision integer encoding for group descriptor fields is the following. This is a slight variation on the format defined in Appendix D in that a fixed 16-bit value is used first, and the length is limited to 16 bits. However, the interpretation is otherwise identical. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Fixed value (TBD) ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ . . . Integer . . . +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+APPENDIX B New Group Definition TBD APPENDIX C Message format 1. Message format templateThefollowing messageformatis meant to be compatible with ISAKMP formats. Any anomalies will be resolved by ongoing coordination activities.of a group descriptor is: 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!1! Group Description ! MODP !~ Initiator-Cookie ~ /+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Field Size ! Length !KEYID+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\! MPI !~ Responder-Cookie ~+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Prime ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !Domain of InterpretationMPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Generator1 !Message TypeLength !Exch+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !VersMPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Generator2 ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! MPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Curve-p1 ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! MPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Curve-p2 ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! MPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Largest Prime Factor ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! MPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!0! Order of GroupID (or SPI)! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !SPI (unused)MPI !eeee+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+eeee!0!0! Strength of Group ! Length !~ Identification ~+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! MPI ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ APPENDIX B Message formats 1. The ISAKMP Message Types and Header OAKLEY uses the ISAKMP Message Types ISA_KE&AUTH_REQ and ISA_KE&AUTH_REP for all key exchanges. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! ! ~PayloadInitiator-Cookie ~ / ! ! KEYID +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ \ ! ! ~Digital SignatureResponder-Cookie ~ ! ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Message Type !~ Padding ~Exch ! Vers ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! (unused) ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! (unused) ! eeee +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ eeee ! ... ! "eeee" represents the encryption boundary for messages requiring privacy. The message after this point is subject to the encryption transform implied by the KEYID. The Group ID field is used for the group identifier for the key exchange methods described in this document; in other ISAKMP messages the field is used for a SPI. OAKLEY does not use the two SPI fields in an ISAKMP header. The second SPI field is not used in OAKLEY. It must contain the value zero.2. Message TypesThefollowing indicates the constant values for message types. These will be assigned unique values, althoughOAKLEY proposal format contains thevaluesSA attributes that areTBD atexchanged in thetimeISA_INIT messages in order to establish the required security attributes for the key and authentication exchange. 2. OAKLEY Use ofthis writing. IREQ IKREQ IKREP IAUTH_REQ IAUTH_REP IAUTH_PRF IAUTH_PRF_R INEWGRP INEWGRRS INEWGRPACK INEWKRQ INEWKRS INEWKRP INEWEXTKEY INEWEXTKEYRQ INEWEXTKEYRS RelatedISA_AUTH&KE packets. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ISAKMPtypes ISA_INIT_REQ ISA_INIT_RESPHeader ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Domain of Interpretation ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Authentication Payload ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Key Exchange Payload ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ISA_AUTH&KE_REQ and ISA_AUTH&KE_RESPISA_NEW_GROUP_REQ (recommended addition) ISA_NEW_GROUP_RESP (recommended addition)Packet Format The encodings of the OAKLEY parameters into these fields are described in the next sections. 3. The Key Exchange Payload The Key Exchange Payloadsectioncarries values that are used to derive secret keying material. Because OAKLEY uses both nonces and Diffie- Hellman exponentials for deriving keys, its use of the Key Exchange Payload is slightly different from the use described in ISAKMP; that document expects only one Key Exchange Payload per packet, but OAKLEY can have two, one for nonces, one for an exponential. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! KEI ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Key Exchange Data ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ Key Exchange Payload Format o KEI (2 octets) - Key Exchange Identifier o Length (2 octets) - Length of payload in octets o Key Exchange Data (variable) - Data required to create session key. OAKLEY uses four KEI values: OAKLEY Main Mode, OAKLEY Quick Mode, OAKLEY External Mode, OAKLEY New Group Mode. The value encoded in the Key Exchange Data field willcarrybe theg^x values,Diffie- Hellman exponential (if it is used), encoded as variable precisionintegers. 3.1 Generic List Exchangeintegers as shown in Appendix D. For Oakley External Mode, the field will contain the external key. 3. The OAKLEY Authentication Payload 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Authentication Authority ! Reserved ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Authentication Type ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Authentication Data ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ Authentication Payload Formatfor Encryption/Hash/Authentication UpThe Authentication Payload will be used to carry threeattribute classes, each followed by a countpieces of essential information: the entity identifiers (ID's), the nonces, and the output of alistfunction proving proving knowledge ofalgorithms.a secret. Theencodingformat of the ID's isasdescribed in the next section. A payload will have two ID's, for the Initiator and Responder, inISAKMP:that order. If the length of an ID is zero, the ID is unspecified. If the low order bit of the RESERVED field is set, the payload will have three ID's; see section 2.4.2, An Aggressive Example With Hidden Identities. Note that in this case, only the first ID will be in plaintext. The two following ID's and the encrypted nonce (see next paragraph) will be encrypted in the public key of the first ID. The nonce will follow the ID's; if alistnonce is encoded with zero length, it is considered to be not present. If the low order bit ofpairs, each one indicating its modethe RESERVED field is set, as in 2.4.2, then the nonce will be encrypted in the public key ofuse (encryptionthe requested responder. The fourth part of the authentication payload will contain the result of applying the pseudorandom function orhashing),signature algorithm to the key exchange parameters, as described in the main text. For example, the output might be the result of applying a keyed MD5 transform to the ID's, the cookies, the nonces, and thealgorithmexponentials. The pseudorandom function output will encoded as a variable precision integer as described in Appendix D. The Authentication Authority and Authentication Type will be taken from the ISAKMP requirements: If the second-most low order bit is set, it means that the remainder of the message is encrypted a key derived from the Diffie-Hellman g^xy value (this is the IDP bit). o Authentication Authority (2 octets) - This field identifies the party that generated the certificates used for authentication. Authorities must be assigned an identifier by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Before being assigned an identifier, an authority must publish an RFC defining the authority's domain. [RFC- 1422] describes the Internet Policy Registration Authority (IPRA) and the procedures for achieving this registration. If PGP certificates, based on the ``web of trust'', are carried in the authentication payload the Authentication Authority value is one (1). Example certificate authorities that would have to register for an identifier are: -- RSA Commercial Certificate Authority (http://www_csc.rsa.com/netsite) -- Stable Large E-mail Database (SLED) (http://www.four11.com) -- U.S. Postal Service. o Authentication Type (2 octets) - This field indicates the authentication payload format. This field is used by authentication authorities that support more than one certificate type. Thelengthauthentication types supported by an authentication authority must be defined in the RFC required for authentication authority registration. Examples are: -- PKCS #7 certificates -- PGP certificates -- DNS Signed Keys -- Kerberos Tokens -- X.509 certificates o Length (2 octets) - Length of thelistAuthentication Data field in octets. o Authentication Data (variable) - Actual authentication data. The type of certificate is indicated by thecountAuthentication Type field. 4. The OAKLEY Proposal 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !Attribute ClassOAKLEY ! Proposal # !CountProposal Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !Attribute TypeEHA Format !Attribute Type+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Group Format ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+~ ~OAKLEY Proposal Format 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0!1! RESERVED !Attribute TypeGRP ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! GRPID ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0!1! GRP ! PRIV ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0!1! Encryption Algorithm ! DES ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0!1! Hash Algorithm ! MD5 ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !1!1! Authentication Alg ! RSA ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0!1! Authentication Mode ! KEYED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ OAKLEY Proposal - EHA Format 5. Identity (ID) formats 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !AttributeIdentification Type ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+4.~ ~ ! Identification Data ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ There are three identification types: IP_ADDR (value 1), FQDN (value 2), USER_FQDN (value 3). TheIdentification sectionlength of the IP address willcarrybe 4 bytes for thevalues indicatedIPv4 Domain of Interpretation, 8 bytes for the IPv6 DOI. FQDN is a fully qualified domain name, as used by"ID"the DNS protocol. Its form is an ASCII character string. The domain components are separated by "." characters, as in DNS. USER_FQDN is a user id followed by a "." character, followed by a fully qualified domain name, as used by thetextDNS protocol. Its form is an ASCII character string. 6. OAKLEY's use ISA_INIT_REQ and ISA_INIT_RESP Packets OAKLEY does not require the use the ISAKMP ISA_INIT_REQ and ISA_INIT_RESP packets. Their optional use may include the establishment of ISAKMP-to-ISAKMP daemon KEYID's for later use as signatures over ISA_KE&AUTH packets, providing an extra level of authenticity checking. In thisdocument. 5.case, the Situation field will have the IP addresses of the two principals; the length of the IP address will depend on the Domain of Interpretation. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ISAKMP Header ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Domain of Interpretation ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! ! ~ Situation ~ ! ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! ! ~ Proposal ~ ! ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ISA_INIT_REQ and ISA_INIT_RESP Packet Format 7. DigitalSignatureSignature/PRF Payload The DigitalSignature sectionSignature/PRF payload will carry a value for authenticating thevalues indicated by "hash"entire message. When it occurs, it will be the last payload. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! KEYID ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Signature/hash data ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ The output of the signature or prf function will be encoded as a variable precision integer as described in Appendix D. The KEYID will indicate KEYID that names keying material and thetextHash or Signature function. 8. The Credential Payload Useful certificates with public key information can be attached to OAKLEY messages using Credential Payloads. The format ofthis document.the payload depends on the Authentication Type, and separate RFC's define the formats. The encoding of the Authority and Type are the same as for the Authentication Payload. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Next Payload ! Payload Len ! RESERVED ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Authentication Authority ! Reserved ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! Authentication Type ! Length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ~ ~ ! Credential Data ! ~ ~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ Credential Payload Format APPENDIX D Encoding a variable precision integer. Variable precision integers will be encoded as a 32-bit length field followed by one or more 32-bit quantities containing the representation of the integer, aligned with the most significant bit in the first 32-bit item. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! length ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! first value word (most significant bits) ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! ! ~ additional value words ~ ! ! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ An example of such an encoding is given below, for a number with 51 bits of significance. The length field indicates that 2 32-bit quantities follow. The most significant non-zero bit of the number is in bit 13 of the first 32-bit quantity, the low order bits are in the second 32-bit quantity. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ ! 1 0! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ !x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x! +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ APPENDIX E Cryptographic strengths The Diffie-Hellman algorithm is used to compute keys that will be used with symmetric algorithms. It should be no easier to break the Diffie-Hellman computation than it is to do an exhaustive search over the symmetric key space. A recent recommendation by an group of cryptographers [Blaze-Diffie-et-al] has recommended a symmetric key size of 75 bits for a practical level of security. For 20 year security, they recommend 90 bits. Based on that report, a conservative strategy for OAKLEY users would be to ensure that their Diffie-Hellman computations were as secure as at least a 90-bit key space. In order to accomplish this for modular exponentiation groups, the size of the largest prime factor of the modulus should be at least 180 bits, and the size of the modulus should be at least 1400 bits. For elliptic curve groups, the LPF should be at least 180 bits. If long-term secrecy of the encryption key is not an issue, then the following parameters may be used for the modular exponentiation group: 150 bits for the LPF, 980 bits for the modulus size. The modulus size alone does not determine the strength of the Diffie-Hellman calculation; the size of the exponent used in computing powers within the group is also important. The size of the exponent in bits should be at least twice the size of any symmetric key that will be derived from it. We recommend that ISAKMP implementors use at least 180 bits of exponent (twice the size of a 20-year symmetric key). The mathematical justification for these estimates can be found in texts that estimate the effort for solving the discrete log problem, a task that is strongly related to the efficiency of using the Number Field Sieve for factoring large integers. Readers are referred to [Stinson] and [Schneier]. APPENDIX FPGP Keys for Authentication TBD APPENDIX G X509 Certificates TBD APPENDIX H DSS Certificates The format and validation methods will be specified in an Internet draft, draft-cylink-dss-cert-00.txt. APPENDIX IThe Well-Known Groups This section will have explicit descriptors for three modular exponentiation groups and two elliptic curve over GF[2^n] groups. The identifiers for the groups (the well-knownKEYID's)GRP's) will also be given here. 0ReservedNo group (used as a placeholder and for non-DH exchanges) 1 A modular exponentiation group with a 768 bit modulus (TBD) 2 A modular exponentiation group with a 1024 bit modulus (TBD) 3 A modular exponentiation group with a 2048 bit modulus (TBD) 4 An elliptic curve group over GF[2^155] 5 An elliptic curve group over GF[2^210] values 2^32 and higher are used for private group identifiersUntil then, TBD. Appendix J Domain of InterpretationAppendix K Implementing Group Operations The group operation must be implemented as a sequence of arithmetic operations; the exact operations depend on the type of group. For modular exponentiation groups, the operation is multi-precision integer multiplication and remainders by the group modulus. See Knuth Vol. 2 [Knuth] for a discussion of how to implement these for large integers. Implementation recommendations for elliptic curve group operations over GF[2^N] are described in [Schroeppel]. BIBLIOGRAPHY [RFC1825] Atkinson, Randall, RFC's 1825-1827 [Blaze] Blaze, Matt et al., Recent symmetric key report [STS] Diffie, van Oorschot, and Wiener, Authentication and Authenticated Key Exchanges [DSS] DSSdraft-cylink-dss-cert-00.txtdraft-ietf-ipsec-dss-cert-00.txt [SECDNS] DNS Signed Keys, Eastlake & Kaufman, draft-ietf-dnssec-secext-09.txt [Photuris] Karn, Phil and Simpson, William, Photuris, draft-ietf- ipsec-photuris-09.txt [Kocher] Kocher, Paul, Timing Attack [Krawcyzk] Krawcyzk, Hugo, SKEME, ISOC, SNDS Symposium, San Diego, 1996 [PKIX] PKIX internet drafts, draft-ietf-pkix-ipki-00.txt [Random] Random number RFC 1750 [ISAKMP] Schertler, Mark, ISAKMP, draft-ietf-ipsec-isakmp-03.txt and draft-ietf-ipsec-isakmp-04.txt. The transition from version 3 to version 4 was in progress at the time of this writing. [Schneier] Schneier, Bruce, Applied cryptography: protocols, algorithms, and source code in C, Second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1995, ISBN 0-471-12845-7, hardcover. ISBN 0-471-11709-9, softcover. [Schroeppel] Schroeppel, Richard, et al.; Fast Key Exchange with Elliptic Curve Systems, Crypto '95, Santa Barbara, 1995. Available on-line as ftp://ftp.cs.arizona.edu/reports/1995/TR95-03.ps (and .Z). [Stinson] Stinson, Douglas, Cryptography Theory and Practice. CRC Press, Inc., 2000, Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, FL, 33431-9868, ISBN 0-8493-8521-0, 1995 [Zimmerman] Philip Zimmermann, The Official Pgp User's Guide, Published by MIT Press Trade, Publication date: June 1995, ISBN: 0262740176 This draft expires six months from the day of issue. The expiration date will be August 24, 1996.