| < draft-irtf-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases-10.txt | draft-irtf-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases-11.txt > | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| QIRG C. Wang | QIRG C. Wang | |||
| Internet-Draft A. Rahman | Internet-Draft A. Rahman | |||
| Intended status: Informational InterDigital Communications, LLC | Intended status: Informational InterDigital Communications, LLC | |||
| Expires: 7 September 2022 R. Li | Expires: 20 October 2022 R. Li | |||
| Kanazawa University | Kanazawa University | |||
| M. Aelmans | M. Aelmans | |||
| Juniper Networks | Juniper Networks | |||
| K. Chakraborty | K. Chakraborty | |||
| The University of Edinburgh | The University of Edinburgh | |||
| 6 March 2022 | 18 April 2022 | |||
| Application Scenarios for the Quantum Internet | Application Scenarios for the Quantum Internet | |||
| draft-irtf-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases-10 | draft-irtf-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases-11 | |||
| Abstract | Abstract | |||
| The Quantum Internet has the potential to improve application | The Quantum Internet has the potential to improve application | |||
| functionality by incorporating quantum information technology into | functionality by incorporating quantum information technology into | |||
| the infrastructure of the overall Internet. This document provides | the infrastructure of the overall Internet. This document provides | |||
| an overview of some applications expected to be used on the Quantum | an overview of some applications expected to be used on the Quantum | |||
| Internet, and then categorizes them using various classification | Internet and categorizes them. Some general requirements for the | |||
| schemes. Some general requirements for the Quantum Internet are also | Quantum Internet are also discussed. The intent of this document is | |||
| discussed. The intent of this document is to describe a framework | to describe a framework for applications, and describe a few selected | |||
| for applications, and describe a few selected application scenarios | application scenarios for the Quantum Internet. This document is a | |||
| for the Quantum Internet. This document is a product of the Quantum | product of the Quantum Internet Research Group (QIRG). | |||
| Internet Research Group (QIRG). | ||||
| Status of This Memo | Status of This Memo | |||
| This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the | This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the | |||
| provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79. | provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79. | |||
| Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering | Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering | |||
| Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute | Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute | |||
| working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet- | working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet- | |||
| Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/. | Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/. | |||
| Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months | Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months | |||
| and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any | and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any | |||
| time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference | time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference | |||
| material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." | material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." | |||
| This Internet-Draft will expire on 7 September 2022. | This Internet-Draft will expire on 20 October 2022. | |||
| Copyright Notice | Copyright Notice | |||
| Copyright (c) 2022 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the | Copyright (c) 2022 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the | |||
| document authors. All rights reserved. | document authors. All rights reserved. | |||
| This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal | This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal | |||
| Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/ | Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/ | |||
| license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document. | license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document. | |||
| Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights | Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights | |||
| skipping to change at page 2, line 26 ¶ | skipping to change at page 2, line 21 ¶ | |||
| described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are | described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are | |||
| provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License. | provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License. | |||
| Table of Contents | Table of Contents | |||
| 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | |||
| 2. Terms and Acronyms List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | 2. Terms and Acronyms List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | |||
| 3. Quantum Internet Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | 3. Quantum Internet Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | |||
| 3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | 3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | |||
| 3.2. Classification by Application Usage . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | 3.2. Classification by Application Usage . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | |||
| 3.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications . . . . . . . . . . 6 | 3.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications . . . . . . . . . . 7 | |||
| 3.2.2. Quantum Sensing/Metrology Applications . . . . . . . 7 | 3.2.2. Quantum Sensing/Metrology Applications . . . . . . . 7 | |||
| 3.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 8 | 3.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 8 | |||
| 3.3. Control vs Data Plane Classification . . . . . . . . . . 9 | 4. Selected Quantum Internet Application Scenarios . . . . . . . 9 | |||
| 4. Selected Quantum Internet Application Scenarios . . . . . . . 11 | 4.1. Secure Communication Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 | |||
| 4.1. Secure Communication Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 | 4.2. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation . . . 13 | |||
| 4.2. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation . . . 15 | 4.3. Distributed Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 | |||
| 4.3. Distributed Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 | 5. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 | |||
| 5. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 | 5.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 | |||
| 5.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 | 5.2. Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 | |||
| 5.2. Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 | 6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 | |||
| 6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 | 7. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 | |||
| 7. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 | 8. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 | |||
| 8. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 | 9. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 | |||
| 9. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 | 10. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 | |||
| 10. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 | Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 | |||
| Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 | ||||
| 1. Introduction | 1. Introduction | |||
| The Classical Internet has been constantly growing since it first | The Classical Internet has been constantly growing since it first | |||
| became commercially popular in the early 1990's. It essentially | became commercially popular in the early 1990's. It essentially | |||
| consists of a large number of end-nodes (e.g., laptops, smart phones, | consists of a large number of end-nodes (e.g., laptops, smart phones, | |||
| network servers) connected by routers and clustered in Autonomous | network servers) connected by routers and clustered in Autonomous | |||
| Systems. The end-nodes may run applications that provide service for | Systems. The end-nodes may run applications that provide service for | |||
| the end-users such as processing and transmission of voice, video or | the end-users such as processing and transmission of voice, video or | |||
| data. The connections between the various nodes in the Internet | data. The connections between the various nodes in the Internet | |||
| skipping to change at page 3, line 15 ¶ | skipping to change at page 3, line 12 ¶ | |||
| WiFi, cellular wireless, Digital Subscriber Lines (DSLs)). Bits are | WiFi, cellular wireless, Digital Subscriber Lines (DSLs)). Bits are | |||
| transmitted across the Classical Internet in packets. | transmitted across the Classical Internet in packets. | |||
| Research and experiments have picked up over the last few years for | Research and experiments have picked up over the last few years for | |||
| developing the Quantum Internet [Wehner]. End-nodes will also be | developing the Quantum Internet [Wehner]. End-nodes will also be | |||
| part of the Quantum Internet, in that case called quantum end-nodes | part of the Quantum Internet, in that case called quantum end-nodes | |||
| that may be connected by quantum repeaters/routers. These quantum | that may be connected by quantum repeaters/routers. These quantum | |||
| end-nodes will also run value-added applications which will be | end-nodes will also run value-added applications which will be | |||
| discussed later. | discussed later. | |||
| The connections between the various nodes in the Quantum Internet are | The physical layer quantum channels between the various nodes in the | |||
| expected to be primarily fiber optics and free-space optical lasers. | Quantum Internet can be either waveguides such as optical fibers or | |||
| Photonic connections are particularly useful because light (photons) | free space. Photonic channels are particularly useful because light | |||
| is very suitable for physically realizing qubits. Qubits are | (photons) is very suitable for physically realizing qubits. Qubits | |||
| expected to be transmitted across the Quantum Internet. The Quantum | are expected to be transferred across the Quantum Internet. The | |||
| Internet will operate according to quantum physical principles such | Quantum Internet will operate according to quantum physical | |||
| as quantum superposition and entanglement [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. | principles such as quantum superposition and entanglement | |||
| [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. | ||||
| The Quantum Internet is not anticipated to replace, but rather to | The Quantum Internet is not anticipated to replace, but rather to | |||
| enhance the Classical Internet. For instance, quantum key | enhance the Classical Internet and/or provide breakthrough | |||
| distribution can improve the security of the Classical Internet; the | applications. For instance, quantum key distribution can improve the | |||
| powerful computation capability of quantum computing can expedite and | security of the Classical Internet; the powerful computation | |||
| optimize computation-intensive tasks (e.g., routing modelling) in the | capability of quantum computing can expedite and optimize | |||
| computation-intensive tasks (e.g., routing modelling) in the | ||||
| Classical Internet. The Quantum Internet will run in conjunction | Classical Internet. The Quantum Internet will run in conjunction | |||
| with the Classical Internet to form a new Hybrid Internet. The | with the Classical Internet. The process of integrating the Quantum | |||
| process of integrating the Quantum Internet with the Classical | Internet with the Classical Internet is similar to, but with more | |||
| Internet is similar to, but with more profound implications, as the | profound implications, as the process of introducing any new | |||
| process of introducing any new communication and networking paradigm | communication and networking paradigm into the existing Internet. | |||
| into the existing Internet. The intent of this document is to | The intent of this document is to provide a common understanding and | |||
| provide a common understanding and framework of applications and | framework of applications and application scenarios for the Quantum | |||
| application scenarios for the Quantum Internet. | Internet. | |||
| This document represents the consensus of the Quantum Internet | This document represents the consensus of the Quantum Internet | |||
| Research Group (QIRG). It has been reviewed extensively by Research | Research Group (QIRG). It has been reviewed extensively by Research | |||
| Group (RG) members with expertise in both quantum physics and | Group (RG) members with expertise in both quantum physics and | |||
| Classical Internet operation. | Classical Internet operation. | |||
| 2. Terms and Acronyms List | 2. Terms and Acronyms List | |||
| This document assumes that the reader is familiar with the quantum | This document assumes that the reader is familiar with the quantum | |||
| information technology related terms and concepts that are described | information technology related terms and concepts that are described | |||
| in [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. In addition, the following terms and | in [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. In addition, the following terms and | |||
| acronyms are defined herein for clarity: | acronyms are defined herein for clarity: | |||
| * Bell-Pairs - A special type of two-qubits quantum states. The two | * Bell Pairs - A special type of two-qubits quantum states. The two | |||
| qubits show a correlation that cannot be observed in classical | qubits show a correlation that cannot be observed in classical | |||
| information theory. We refer to such correlation as quantum | information theory. We refer to such correlation as quantum | |||
| entanglement. Bell-pairs exhibit the maximal quantum | entanglement. Bell pairs exhibit the maximal quantum | |||
| entanglement. One example of a Bell-pair is | entanglement. One example of a Bell pair is | |||
| (|00>+|11>)/(Sqrt(2)). The Bell-pairs are a fundamental resource | (|00>+|11>)/(Sqrt(2)). The Bell pairs are a fundamental resource | |||
| for quantum communication. | for quantum communication. | |||
| * Bit - Binary Digit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in | * Bit - Binary Digit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in | |||
| classical communications and classical computing). | classical communications and classical computing). | |||
| * Classical Internet - The existing, deployed Internet (circa 2020) | * Classical Internet - The existing, deployed Internet (circa 2020) | |||
| where bits are transmitted in packets between nodes to convey | where bits are transmitted in packets between nodes to convey | |||
| information. The Classical Internet supports applications which | information. The Classical Internet supports applications which | |||
| may be enhanced by the Quantum Internet. For example, the end-to- | may be enhanced by the Quantum Internet. For example, the end-to- | |||
| end security of a Classical Internet application may be improved | end security of a Classical Internet application may be improved | |||
| by secure communication setup using a quantum application. | by secure communication setup using a quantum application. | |||
| * Entanglement Swapping: It is a process of sharing an entanglement | * Entanglement Swapping: It is a process of sharing an entanglement | |||
| between two distant parties via some intermediate nodes. For | between two distant parties via some intermediate nodes. For | |||
| example, suppose there are three parties A, B, C, and each of the | example, suppose there are three parties A, B, C, and each of the | |||
| parties (A, B) and (B, C) share Bell-pairs. B can use the qubits | parties (A, B) and (B, C) share Bell pairs. B can use the qubits | |||
| it shares with A and C to perform entanglement swapping | it shares with A and C to perform entanglement swapping | |||
| operations, and as a result, A and C share Bell-pairs. | operations, and as a result, A and C share Bell pairs. | |||
| * Fast Byzantine Negotiation - A Quantum-based method for fast | * Fast Byzantine Negotiation - A Quantum-based method for fast | |||
| agreement in Byzantine negotiations [Ben-Or] [Taherkhani]. | agreement in Byzantine negotiations [Ben-Or] [Taherkhani]. | |||
| * Hybrid Internet - The "new" or evolved Internet to be formed due | ||||
| to a merger of the Classical Internet and the Quantum Internet. | ||||
| * Local Operations and Classical Communication (LOCC) - A method | * Local Operations and Classical Communication (LOCC) - A method | |||
| where nodes communicate in rounds, in which (1) they can send any | where nodes communicate in rounds, in which (1) they can send any | |||
| classical information to each other; (2) they can perform local | classical information to each other; (2) they can perform local | |||
| quantum operations individually; and (3) the actions performed in | quantum operations individually; and (3) the actions performed in | |||
| each round can depend on the results from previous rounds. | each round can depend on the results from previous rounds. | |||
| * Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) - NISQ was defined in | * Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) - NISQ was defined in | |||
| [Preskill] to represent a near-term era in quantum technology. | [Preskill] to represent a near-term era in quantum technology. | |||
| According to this definition, NISQ computers have two salient | According to this definition, NISQ computers have two salient | |||
| features: (1) The size of NISQ computers range from 50 to a few | features: (1) The size of NISQ computers range from 50 to a few | |||
| hundred physical qubits (i.e., intermediate-scale); and (2) Qubits | hundred physical qubits (i.e., intermediate-scale); and (2) Qubits | |||
| in NISQ computers have inherent errors and the control over them | in NISQ computers have inherent errors and the control over them | |||
| is imperfect (i.e., noisy). | is imperfect (i.e., noisy). | |||
| * Packet - Formatted unit of multiple related bits. The bits | * Packet - A self-identified message with in-band addresses or other | |||
| contained in a packet may be classical bits, or the measured state | information that can be used for forwarding the message. The | |||
| of qubits expressed in classical bits. | message contains an ordered set of bits of determinate number. | |||
| The bits contained in a packet are classical bits. | ||||
| * Prepare-and-Measure - A set of Quantum Internet scenarios where | * Prepare-and-Measure - A set of Quantum Internet scenarios where | |||
| quantum nodes only support simple quantum functionalities (i.e., | quantum nodes only support simple quantum functionalities (i.e., | |||
| prepare qubits and measure qubits). For example, BB84 [BB84] is a | prepare qubits and measure qubits). For example, BB84 [BB84] is a | |||
| prepare-and-measure quantum key distribution protocol. | prepare-and-measure quantum key distribution protocol. | |||
| * Quantum Computer (QC) - A quantum end-node that also has quantum | * Quantum Computer (QC) - A quantum end-node that also has quantum | |||
| memory and quantum computing capabilities is regarded as a full- | memory and quantum computing capabilities is regarded as a full- | |||
| fledged quantum computer. | fledged quantum computer. | |||
| * Quantum End-node - An end-node hosts user applications and | * Quantum End-node - An end-node hosts user applications and | |||
| interfaces with the rest of the Internet. Typically, an end-node | interfaces with the rest of the Internet. Typically, an end-node | |||
| may serve in a client, server, or peer-to-peer role as part of the | may serve in a client, server, or peer-to-peer role as part of the | |||
| application. If the end-node is part of a Quantum Network (i.e, | application. If the end-node is part of a Quantum Network (i.e, | |||
| is a quantum end-node), it must be able to generate/transmit and | is a quantum end-node), it must be able to generate/transfer and | |||
| receive/process qubits. A quantum end-node must also be able to | receive/process qubits. A quantum end-node must also be able to | |||
| interface to the Classical Internet for control purposes and thus | interface to the Classical Internet for control purposes and thus | |||
| also be able to receive, process, and transmit classical bits/ | also be able to receive, process, and transmit classical bits/ | |||
| packets. | packets. | |||
| * Quantum Internet - A network of Quantum Networks. The Quantum | * Quantum Internet - A network of Quantum Networks. The Quantum | |||
| Internet is expected to be merged into the Classical Internet to | Internet is expected to be merged into the Classical Internet. | |||
| form a new Hybrid Internet. The Quantum Internet may either | The Quantum Internet may either improve classical applications or | |||
| improve classical applications or may enable new quantum | may enable new quantum applications. | |||
| applications. | ||||
| * Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - A method that leverages quantum | * Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - A method that leverages quantum | |||
| mechanics such as no-cloning theorem to let two parties (e.g., a | mechanics such as no-cloning theorem to let two parties create the | |||
| sender and a receiver) securely establish/agree on a key. | same arbitrary classical key. | |||
| * Quantum Network - A new type of network enabled by quantum | * Quantum Network - A new type of network enabled by quantum | |||
| information technology where qubits are transmitted between nodes | information technology where quantum resources such as qubits and | |||
| to convey information. (Note: qubits must be sent individually | entanglement are transferred and utilized between quantum nodes. | |||
| and not in packets). The Quantum Network will use both quantum | The Quantum Network will use both quantum channels, and classical | |||
| channels, and classical channels provided by the Classical | channels provided by the Classical Internet, referred to as a | |||
| Internet. | hybrid implementation. | |||
| * Quantum Teleportation - A technique for transferring quantum | * Quantum Teleportation - A technique for transferring quantum | |||
| information via local operations and classical communication | information via local operations and classical communication | |||
| (LOCC). If two parties share a Bell-pair, then using quantum | (LOCC). If two parties share a Bell pair, then using quantum | |||
| teleportation a sender can transfer a quantum data bit to a | teleportation a sender can transfer a quantum data bit to a | |||
| receiver without sending it physically via a quantum communication | receiver without sending it physically via a quantum channel. | |||
| channel. | ||||
| * Qubit - Quantum Bit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in | * Qubit - Quantum Bit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in | |||
| quantum communication and quantum computing). It is similar to a | quantum communication and quantum computing). It is similar to a | |||
| classic bit in that the state of a qubit is either "0" or "1" | classic bit in that the state of a qubit is either "0" or "1" | |||
| after it is measured, and is denoted as its basis state vector |0> | after it is measured, and is denoted as its basis state vector |0> | |||
| or |1>. However, the qubit is different than a classic bit in | or |1>. However, the qubit is different than a classic bit in | |||
| that the qubit can be in a linear combination of both states | that the qubit can be in a linear combination of both states | |||
| before it is measured and termed to be in superposition. The | before it is measured and termed to be in superposition. Any of | |||
| Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of a photon (e.g., polarization) or an | several Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of a photon (e.g., polarization, | |||
| electron (e.g., spin) can be used to encode a qubit. | time bib, and/or frequency) or an electron (e.g., spin) can be | |||
| used to encode a qubit. | ||||
| * Transmit a Qubit - An operation of encoding a qubit into a mobile | ||||
| carrier (i.e., typically photon) and passing it through a quantum | ||||
| channel from a sender (a transmitter) to a receiver. | ||||
| * Teleport a Qubit - An operation on two or more carriers in | ||||
| succession to move a qubit from a sender to a receiver using | ||||
| quantum teleportation. | ||||
| * Transfer a Qubit - An operation to move a qubit from a sender to a | ||||
| receiver without specifying the means of moving the qubit, which | ||||
| could be "transmit" or "teleport". | ||||
| 3. Quantum Internet Applications | 3. Quantum Internet Applications | |||
| 3.1. Overview | 3.1. Overview | |||
| The Quantum Internet is expected to be beneficial for a subset of | The Quantum Internet is expected to be beneficial for a subset of | |||
| existing and new applications. The expected applications for the | existing and new applications. The expected applications for the | |||
| Quantum Internet are still being developed as we are in the formative | Quantum Internet are still being developed as we are in the formative | |||
| stages of the Quantum Internet [Castelvecchi] [Wehner]. However, an | stages of the Quantum Internet [Castelvecchi] [Wehner]. However, an | |||
| initial (and non-exhaustive) list of the applications to be supported | initial (and non-exhaustive) list of the applications to be supported | |||
| skipping to change at page 6, line 29 ¶ | skipping to change at page 6, line 40 ¶ | |||
| different schemes. Note, this document does not include quantum | different schemes. Note, this document does not include quantum | |||
| computing applications that are purely local to a given node (e.g., | computing applications that are purely local to a given node (e.g., | |||
| quantum random number generator). | quantum random number generator). | |||
| 3.2. Classification by Application Usage | 3.2. Classification by Application Usage | |||
| Applications may be grouped by the usage that they serve. | Applications may be grouped by the usage that they serve. | |||
| Specifically, applications may be grouped according to the following | Specifically, applications may be grouped according to the following | |||
| categories: | categories: | |||
| * Quantum cryptography applications - Refers to the use of quantum | * Quantum cryptography applications - Refer to the use of quantum | |||
| information technology for cryptographic tasks such as quantum key | information technology for cryptographic tasks such as quantum key | |||
| distribution and quantum commitment. | distribution and quantum commitment. | |||
| * Quantum sensors applications - Refers to the use of quantum | * Quantum sensors applications - Refer to the use of quantum | |||
| information technology for supporting distributed sensors (e.g., | information technology for supporting distributed sensors (e.g., | |||
| clock synchronization [Jozsa2000]). | clock synchronization [Jozsa2000] [Komar] [Guo] ). | |||
| * Quantum computing applications - Refers to the use of quantum | * Quantum computing applications - Refer to the use of quantum | |||
| information technology for supporting remote quantum computing | information technology for supporting remote quantum computing | |||
| facilities (e.g., distributed quantum computing). | facilities (e.g., distributed quantum computing). | |||
| This scheme can be easily understood by both a technical and non- | This scheme can be easily understood by both a technical and non- | |||
| technical audience. The next sections describe the scheme in more | technical audience. The next sections describe the scheme in more | |||
| detail. | detail. | |||
| 3.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications | 3.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications | |||
| Examples of quantum cryptography applications include quantum-based | Examples of quantum cryptography applications include quantum-based | |||
| skipping to change at page 7, line 28 ¶ | skipping to change at page 7, line 37 ¶ | |||
| methods for fast agreement in Byzantine negotiations can be used | methods for fast agreement in Byzantine negotiations can be used | |||
| for improving consensus protocols such as practical Byzantine | for improving consensus protocols such as practical Byzantine | |||
| Fault Tolerance(pBFT), as well as other distributed computing | Fault Tolerance(pBFT), as well as other distributed computing | |||
| features which use Byzantine negotiations. | features which use Byzantine negotiations. | |||
| 3. Quantum money - The main security requirement of money is | 3. Quantum money - The main security requirement of money is | |||
| unforgeability. A quantum money scheme aims to fulfill by | unforgeability. A quantum money scheme aims to fulfill by | |||
| exploiting the no-cloning property of the unknown quantum states. | exploiting the no-cloning property of the unknown quantum states. | |||
| Though the original idea of quantum money dates back to 1970, | Though the original idea of quantum money dates back to 1970, | |||
| these early protocols allow only the issuing bank to verify a | these early protocols allow only the issuing bank to verify a | |||
| quantum banknote. However, the recent protocols that are called | quantum banknote. However, the recent protocols such as public- | |||
| public-key quantum money [Zhandry] allow anyone to verify the | key quantum money [Zhandry] allow anyone to verify the banknotes | |||
| banknotes locally. | locally. | |||
| 3.2.2. Quantum Sensing/Metrology Applications | 3.2.2. Quantum Sensing/Metrology Applications | |||
| The entanglement, superposition, interference, squeezing properties | The entanglement, superposition, interference, squeezing properties | |||
| can enhance the sensitivity of the quantum sensors and eventually can | can enhance the sensitivity of the quantum sensors and eventually can | |||
| outperform the classical strategies. Examples of quantum sensor | outperform the classical strategies. Examples of quantum sensor | |||
| applications include network clock synchronization, high sensitivity | applications include network clock synchronization, high sensitivity | |||
| sensing, quantum imaging, etc. These applications mainly leverage a | sensing, etc. These applications mainly leverage a network of | |||
| network of entangled quantum sensors (i.e. quantum sensor networks) | entangled quantum sensors (i.e. quantum sensor networks) for high- | |||
| for high-precision multi-parameter estimation [Proctor]. | precision multi-parameter estimation [Proctor]. | |||
| 1. Network clock synchronization - Refers to a world wide set of | 1. Network clock synchronization - Refers to a world wide set of | |||
| atomic clocks connected by the Quantum Internet to achieve an | atomic clocks connected by the Quantum Internet to achieve an | |||
| ultra precise clock signal [Komar] with fundamental precision | ultra precise clock signal [Komar] with fundamental precision | |||
| limits set by quantum theory. | limits set by quantum theory. | |||
| 2. High sensitivity sensing - Refers to applications that leverage | 2. High sensitivity sensing - Refers to applications that leverage | |||
| quantum phenomena to achieve reliable nanoscale sensing of | quantum phenomena to achieve reliable nanoscale sensing of | |||
| physical magnitudes. For example, [Guo] uses an entangled | physical magnitudes. For example, [Guo] uses an entangled | |||
| quantum network for measuring the average phase shift among | quantum network for measuring the average phase shift among | |||
| multiple distributed nodes. | multiple distributed nodes. | |||
| 3. Quantum imaging - The highly sensitive quantum sensors show great | 3. Interferometric Telescopes using Quantum Information - | |||
| potential in improving the domain of magnetoencephalography. | ||||
| Unlike the current classical strategies, with the help of a | ||||
| network of quantum sensors, it is possible to measure the | ||||
| magnetic fields generated by the flow of current through neuronal | ||||
| assemblies in the brain while the subject is moving. It reveals | ||||
| the dynamics of the networks of neurons inside the human brain on | ||||
| a millisecond timescale. This kind of imaging capability could | ||||
| improve the diagnosis and monitoring the conditions like | ||||
| attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder [Hill]. | ||||
| 4. Interferometric Telescopes using Quantum Information - | ||||
| Interferometric techniques are used to combine signals from two | Interferometric techniques are used to combine signals from two | |||
| or more telescopes to obtain measurements with higher resolution | or more telescopes to obtain measurements with higher resolution | |||
| than what could be obtained with either telescope individually. | than what could be obtained with either telescope individually. | |||
| It can make measurements of very small astronomical objects if | It can make measurements of very small astronomical objects if | |||
| the telescopes are spread out over a wide area. However, the | the telescopes are spread out over a wide area. However, the | |||
| phase fluctuations and photon loss introduced by the | phase fluctuations and photon loss introduced by the | |||
| communication channel between the telescopes put a limitation on | communication channel between the telescopes put a limitation on | |||
| the baseline lengths of the optical interferometers. This | the baseline lengths of the optical interferometers. This | |||
| limitation can easily be avoided using quantum teleportation. In | limitation can be potentially avoided using quantum | |||
| general, by sharing EPR-pairs using quantum repeaters, the | teleportation. In general, by sharing EPR-pairs using quantum | |||
| optical interferometers can communicate photons over long | repeaters, the optical interferometers can communicate photons | |||
| distances, providing arbitrarily long baselines [Gottesman2012]. | over long distances, providing arbitrarily long baselines | |||
| [Gottesman2012]. | ||||
| 3.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications | 3.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications | |||
| In this section, we include the applications for the quantum | In this section, we include the applications for the quantum | |||
| computing. Note that, for the next couple of years we will have | computing. Note that, for the next couple of years we will have | |||
| quantum computers as a cloud service. Sometimes, to run such | quantum computers as a cloud service. Sometimes, to run such | |||
| applications in the cloud while preserving the privacy, the client | applications in the cloud while preserving the privacy, a client and | |||
| and the server need to exchange qubits. Therefore, such privacy | a server need to exchange qubits. Therefore, such privacy preserving | |||
| preserving quantum computing applications require a quantum internet | quantum computing applications require a Quantum Internet to execute. | |||
| to execute. | ||||
| Examples of quantum computing include distributed quantum computing | Examples of quantum computing include distributed quantum computing | |||
| and secure quantum computing with privacy preservation, which can | and secure quantum computing with privacy preservation, which can | |||
| enable new types of cloud computing. | enable new types of cloud computing. | |||
| 1. Distributed quantum computing - Refers to a collection of remote | 1. Distributed quantum computing - Refers to a collection of remote | |||
| small capacity quantum computers (i.e., each supporting a | small-capacity quantum computers (i.e., each supporting a | |||
| relatively small number of qubits) that are connected and working | relatively small number of qubits) that are connected and work | |||
| together in a coordinated fashion so as to simulate a virtual | together in a coordinated fashion so as to simulate a virtual | |||
| large capacity quantum computer [Wehner]. | large capacity quantum computer [Wehner]. | |||
| 2. Secure quantum computing with privacy preservation - Refers to | 2. Secure quantum computing with privacy preservation - Refers to | |||
| private, or blind, quantum computation, which provides a way for | private, or blind, quantum computation, which provides a way for | |||
| a client to delegate a computation task to one or more remote | a client to delegate a computation task to one or more remote | |||
| quantum computers without disclosing the source data to be | quantum computers without disclosing the source data to be | |||
| computed over [Fitzsimons]. | computed over [Fitzsimons]. | |||
| 3.3. Control vs Data Plane Classification | ||||
| The majority of routers currently used in the Classical Internet | ||||
| separate control plane functionality and data plane functionality | ||||
| for, amongst other reasons, stability, capacity and security. In | ||||
| order to classify applications for the Quantum Internet, a somewhat | ||||
| similar distinction can be made. Specifically some applications can | ||||
| be classified as being responsible for initiating sessions and | ||||
| performing other control plane functionality (including management | ||||
| functionalities too). Other applications carry application or user | ||||
| data and can be classified as data plane functionality. | ||||
| Some examples of what may be called control plane applications in the | ||||
| Classical Internet are Domain Name Server (DNS), Session Information | ||||
| Protocol (SIP), and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). | ||||
| Furthermore, examples of data plane applications are E-mail, web | ||||
| browsing, and video streaming. Note that some applications may | ||||
| require both control plane and data plane functionality. For | ||||
| example, a Voice over IP (VoIP) application may use SIP to set up the | ||||
| call and then transmit the VoIP user packets over the data plane to | ||||
| the other party. | ||||
| Similarly, nodes in the Quantum Internet applications may also use | ||||
| the classification paradigm of control plane functionality versus | ||||
| data plane functionality where: | ||||
| * Control Plane - Network functions and processes that operate on | ||||
| (1) control bits/packets or qubits (e.g., to setup up end-user | ||||
| encryption); or (2) management bits/packets or qubits (e.g., to | ||||
| configure nodes). For example, a quantum ping could be | ||||
| implemented as a control plane application to test and verify if | ||||
| there is a quantum connection between two quantum nodes. Another | ||||
| example is quantum superdense coding (which is used to transmit | ||||
| two classical bits by sending only one qubit). This approach does | ||||
| not need classical channels. Quantum superdense coding can be | ||||
| leveraged to implement a secret sharing application to share | ||||
| secrets between two parties [Wang]. This secret sharing | ||||
| application based on quantum superdense encoding can be classified | ||||
| as control plane functionality. | ||||
| * Data Plane - Network functions and processes that operate on end- | ||||
| user application bits/packets or qubits (e.g., voice, video, | ||||
| data). Sometimes also referred to as the user plane. For | ||||
| example, a data plane application can be video conferencing, which | ||||
| uses QKD-based secure communication setup (which is a control | ||||
| plane function) to share a classical secret key for encrypting and | ||||
| decrypting video frames. | ||||
| As shown in the table in Figure 1, control and data plane | ||||
| applications vary for different types of networks. For a standalone | ||||
| Quantum Network (i.e., that is not integrated into the Internet), | ||||
| entangled qubits are its "data" and thus entanglement distribution | ||||
| can be regarded as its data plane application, while the signalling | ||||
| for controlling entanglement distribution be considered as control | ||||
| plane. However, looking at the Quantum Internet, QKD-based secure | ||||
| communication setup, which may be based on and leverage entanglement | ||||
| distribution, is in fact a control plane application, while video | ||||
| conference using QKD-based secure communication setup is a data plane | ||||
| application. In the future, two data planes may exist, respectively | ||||
| for Quantum Internet and Classical Internet, while one control plane | ||||
| can be leveraged for both Quantum Internet and Classical Internet. | ||||
| +----------+-----------+----------------+----------------------+ | ||||
| | | | | | | ||||
| | | Classical | Quantum | Hybrid | | ||||
| | | Internet | Internet | Internet | | ||||
| | | Examples | Examples | Examples | | ||||
| +----------+-----------+----------------+----------------------+ | ||||
| | Control | ICMP; | Quantum ping; | QKD-based secure | | ||||
| | Plane | DNS | Signalling for | communication | | ||||
| | | | controlling | setup | | ||||
| | | | entanglement | | | ||||
| | | | distribution; | | | ||||
| ---------------------------------------------------------------| | ||||
| | Data | Video | QKD; | Video conference | | ||||
| | Plane | conference| Entanglement | using QKD-based | | ||||
| | | | distribution | secure communication | | ||||
| | | | | setup | | ||||
| +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | ||||
| Figure 1: Examples of Control vs Data Plane Classification | ||||
| 4. Selected Quantum Internet Application Scenarios | 4. Selected Quantum Internet Application Scenarios | |||
| The Quantum Internet will support a variety of applications and | The Quantum Internet will support a variety of applications and | |||
| deployment configurations. This section details a few key | deployment configurations. This section details a few key | |||
| application scenarios which illustrates the benefits of the Quantum | application scenarios which illustrates the benefits of the Quantum | |||
| Internet. In system engineering, a application scenario is typically | Internet. In system engineering, an application scenario is | |||
| made up of a set of possible sequences of interactions between nodes | typically made up of a set of possible sequences of interactions | |||
| and users in a particular environment and related to a particular | between nodes and users in a particular environment and related to a | |||
| goal. This will be the definition that we use in this section. | particular goal. This will be the definition that we use in this | |||
| section. | ||||
| 4.1. Secure Communication Setup | 4.1. Secure Communication Setup | |||
| In this scenario, two banks (i.e., Bank #1 and Bank #2) need to have | In this scenario, two banks (i.e., Bank #1 and Bank #2) need to have | |||
| secure communications for transmitting important financial | secure communications for transmitting important financial | |||
| transaction records (see Figure 2). For this purpose, they first | transaction records (see Figure 1). For this purpose, they first | |||
| need to securely share a classic secret cryptographic key (i.e., a | need to securely share a classic secret cryptographic key (i.e., a | |||
| sequence of classical bits), which is triggered by an end-user banker | sequence of classical bits), which is triggered by an end-user banker | |||
| at Bank #1. This results in a source quantum node A at Bank #1 to | at Bank #1. This results in a source quantum node A at Bank #1 to | |||
| securely establish a classical secret key with a destination quantum | securely establish a classical secret key with a destination quantum | |||
| node B at Bank #2. This is referred to as a secure communication | node B at Bank #2. This is referred to as a secure communication | |||
| setup. Note that the quantum node A and B may be either a bare-bone | setup. Note that the quantum node A and B may be either a bare-bone | |||
| quantum end-node or a full-fledged quantum computer. This | quantum end-node or a full-fledged quantum computer. This | |||
| application scenario shows that the Quantum Internet can be leveraged | application scenario shows that the Quantum Internet can be leveraged | |||
| to improve the security of Classical Internet applications of which | to improve the security of Classical Internet applications of which | |||
| the financial application shown in Figure 2 is an example. | the financial application shown in Figure 1 is an example. | |||
| One requirement for this secure communication setup process is that | One requirement for this secure communication setup process is that | |||
| it should not be vulnerable to any classical or quantum computing | it should not be vulnerable to any classical or quantum computing | |||
| attack. This can be realized using QKD which has been mathematically | attack. This can be realized using QKD which is unbreakable in | |||
| proven to be information-theoretically secure and unbreakable. QKD | principle. QKD can securely establish a secret key between two | |||
| can securely establish a secret key between two quantum nodes, using | quantum nodes, using a classical authentication channel and insecure | |||
| a classical authentication channel and insecure quantum communication | quantum channel without physically transmitting the key through the | |||
| channel without physically transmitting the key through the network | network and thus achieving the required security. However, care must | |||
| and thus achieving the required security. However, care must be | be taken to ensure that the QKD system is safe against physical side | |||
| taken to ensure that the QKD system is safe against physical side | ||||
| channel attacks which can compromise the system. An example of a | channel attacks which can compromise the system. An example of a | |||
| physical side channel attack is when an attacker is able to | physical side channel attack is to surreptitiously inject additional | |||
| surreptitiously inject additional light into the optical devices used | light into the optical devices used in QKD to learn side information | |||
| in QKD to learn side information about the system such as the | about the system such as the polarization. Other specialized | |||
| polarization. Other specialized physical attacks against QKD have | physical attacks against QKD also use a classical authentication | |||
| also used a classical authentication channel and insecure quantum | channel and insecure quantum channel such as the phase-remapping | |||
| communication channel such as the phase-remapping attack, photon | attack, photon number splitting attack, and decoy state attack | |||
| number splitting attack, and decoy state attack [Zhao2018]. QKD can | ||||
| be used for many other cryptographic communications such as IPSec and | [Zhao2018]. QKD can be used for many other cryptographic | |||
| Transport Layer Security (TLS) where involved parties need to | communications, such as IPSec and Transport Layer Security (TLS) | |||
| establish a shared security key, although QKD usually introduces a | where involved parties need to establish a shared security key, | |||
| high latency. | although it usually introduces a high latency. | |||
| QKD is the most mature feature of the quantum information technology, | QKD is the most mature feature of the quantum information technology, | |||
| and has been commercially released in small-scale and short-distance | and has been commercially released in small-scale and short-distance | |||
| deployments. More QKD use cases are described in ETSI documents | deployments. More QKD use cases are described in ETSI documents | |||
| [ETSI-QKD-UseCases]; in addition, the ETSI document | [ETSI-QKD-UseCases]; in addition, the ETSI document | |||
| [ETSI-QKD-Interfaces] specifies interfaces between QKD users and QKD | [ETSI-QKD-Interfaces] specifies interfaces between QKD users and QKD | |||
| devices. | devices. | |||
| In general, the prepare and measure QKD protocols (e.g., [BB84]) | In general, the prepare and measure QKD protocols (e.g., [BB84]) | |||
| without using entanglement works as follows: | without using entanglement work as follows: | |||
| 1. The source quantum node A encodes classical bits to qubits. | 1. The source quantum node A encodes classical bits to qubits. | |||
| Basically, the source node A generates two random classical bit | Basically, the source node A generates two random classical bit | |||
| strings X, Y. Among them, it uses the bit string X to choose the | strings X, Y. Among them, it uses the bit string X to choose the | |||
| basis and uses Y to choose the state corresponding to the chosen | basis and uses Y to choose the state corresponding to the chosen | |||
| basis. For example, if X=0 then in case of BB84 protocol Alice | basis. For example, if X=0 then in case of BB84 protocol Alice | |||
| prepares the state in {|0>, |1>}-basis; otherwise she prepares | prepares the state in {|0>, |1>}-basis; otherwise she prepares | |||
| the state in {|+>, |->}-basis. Similarly, if Y=0 then Alice | the state in {|+>, |->}-basis. Similarly, if Y=0 then Alice | |||
| prepares the qubit either |0> or |+> (depending on the value of | prepares the qubit either |0> or |+> (depending on the value of | |||
| X), and if Y =1, then Alice prepares the qubit either |1> or |->. | X), and if Y =1, then Alice prepares the qubit either |1> or |->. | |||
| skipping to change at page 13, line 13 ¶ | skipping to change at page 10, line 50 ¶ | |||
| quantum basis is correct. | quantum basis is correct. | |||
| 6. Both nodes discard any measurement bit under different quantum | 6. Both nodes discard any measurement bit under different quantum | |||
| basis and remaining bits could be used as the secret key. Before | basis and remaining bits could be used as the secret key. Before | |||
| generating the final secret key, there is a post-processing | generating the final secret key, there is a post-processing | |||
| procedure over authenticated classical channels. The classical | procedure over authenticated classical channels. The classical | |||
| post-processing part can be subdivided into three steps, namely | post-processing part can be subdivided into three steps, namely | |||
| parameter estimation, error-correction, and privacy | parameter estimation, error-correction, and privacy | |||
| amplification. In the parameter estimation phase, both Alice and | amplification. In the parameter estimation phase, both Alice and | |||
| Bob use some of the bits to estimate the channel error. If it is | Bob use some of the bits to estimate the channel error. If it is | |||
| larger than some threshold value, then they abort the protocol | larger than some threshold value, they abort the protocol | |||
| otherwise move to the error-correction phase. Basically, if an | otherwise move to the error-correction phase. Basically, if an | |||
| eavesdropper tries to intercept and read qubits sent from node A | eavesdropper tries to intercept and read qubits sent from node A | |||
| to node B, the eavesdropper will be detected due to the entropic | to node B, the eavesdropper will be detected due to the entropic | |||
| uncertainty relation property theorem of quantum mechanics. As a | uncertainty relation property theorem of quantum mechanics. As a | |||
| part of the post-processing procedure, both nodes usually also | part of the post-processing procedure, both nodes usually also | |||
| perform information reconciliation [Elkouss] for efficient error | perform information reconciliation [Elkouss] for efficient error | |||
| correction and/or conduct privacy amplification [Tang] for | correction and/or conduct privacy amplification [Tang] for | |||
| generating the final information-theoretical secure keys. | generating the final information-theoretical secure keys. | |||
| 7. The post-processing procedure needs to be performed over an | 7. The post-processing procedure needs to be performed over an | |||
| skipping to change at page 13, line 36 ¶ | skipping to change at page 11, line 24 ¶ | |||
| authenticate the classical channel to make sure there is no | authenticate the classical channel to make sure there is no | |||
| eavesdroppers or man-in-the-middle attacks, according to certain | eavesdroppers or man-in-the-middle attacks, according to certain | |||
| authentication protocols such as [Kiktenko]. In [Kiktenko], the | authentication protocols such as [Kiktenko]. In [Kiktenko], the | |||
| authenticity of the classical channel is checked at the very end | authenticity of the classical channel is checked at the very end | |||
| of the post-processing procedure instead of doing it for each | of the post-processing procedure instead of doing it for each | |||
| classical message exchanged between the quantum source node and | classical message exchanged between the quantum source node and | |||
| the quantum destination node. | the quantum destination node. | |||
| It is worth noting that: | It is worth noting that: | |||
| 1. There are some entanglement-based QKD protocols such as | 1. There are some entanglement-based QKD protocols, such as | |||
| [Treiber][E91][BBM92], which work differently than above steps. | [Treiber][E91][BBM92], which work differently than the above | |||
| The entanglement-based schemes, where entangled states are | steps. The entanglement-based schemes, where entangled states | |||
| prepared externally to the source quantum node and the | are prepared externally to the source quantum node and the | |||
| destination quantum node, are not normally considered "prepare- | destination quantum node, are not normally considered "prepare- | |||
| and-measure" as defined in [Wehner]; other entanglement-based | and-measure" as defined in [Wehner]; other entanglement-based | |||
| schemes, where entanglement is generated within the source | schemes, where entanglement is generated within the source | |||
| quantum node can still be considered "prepare-and-measure"; send- | quantum node can still be considered "prepare-and-measure"; send- | |||
| and-return schemes can still be "prepare-and-measure", if the | and-return schemes can still be "prepare-and-measure", if the | |||
| information content, from which keys will be derived, is prepared | information content, from which keys will be derived, is prepared | |||
| within the source quantum node the source quantum node before | within the source quantum node before being sent to the | |||
| being sent to the destination quantum node for measurement. | destination quantum node for measurement. | |||
| 2. There are many enhanced QKD protocols based on [BB84]. For | 2. There are many enhanced QKD protocols based on [BB84]. For | |||
| example, a series of loopholes have been identified due to the | example, a series of loopholes have been identified due to the | |||
| imperfections of measurement devices; there are several solutions | imperfections of measurement devices; there are several solutions | |||
| to take into account these attacks such as measurement-device- | to take into account these attacks such as measurement-device- | |||
| independent QKD [Zhang2019]. These enhanced QKD protocols can | independent QKD [Zhang2019]. These enhanced QKD protocols can | |||
| work differently than the steps of BB84 protocol [BB84]. | work differently than the steps of BB84 protocol [BB84]. | |||
| 3. For large-scale QKD, QKD Networks (QKDN) are required, which can | 3. For large-scale QKD, QKD Networks (QKDN) are required, which can | |||
| be regarded as a subset of a Quantum Internet. A QKDN may | be regarded as a subset of a Quantum Internet. A QKDN may | |||
| consist of a QKD application layer, a QKD network layer, and a | consist of a QKD application layer, a QKD network layer, and a | |||
| QKD link layer [Qin]. One or multiple trusted QKD relays | QKD link layer [Qin]. One or multiple trusted QKD relays | |||
| [Zhang2018] may exist between the source quantum node A and the | [Zhang2018] may exist between the source quantum node A and the | |||
| destination quantum node B, which are connected by a QKDN. | destination quantum node B, which are connected by a QKDN. | |||
| Alternatively, a QKDN may rely on entanglement distribution and | Alternatively, a QKDN may rely on entanglement distribution and | |||
| entanglement-based QKD protocols; as a result, quantum-repeaters/ | entanglement-based QKD protocols; as a result, quantum-repeaters/ | |||
| routers instead of trusted QKD relays are needed for large-scale | routers instead of trusted QKD relays are needed for large-scale | |||
| QKD. | QKD. | |||
| 4. Although the addresses of Source Quantum Node A and Destination | 4. QKD provides an information-theoretical way to share secret keys | |||
| Quantum Node B could be identified and exposed, the identity of | ||||
| users, who will use the secret cryptographic key for secure | ||||
| communications, will not necessarily be exposed during QKD | ||||
| process. In other words, there is no direct mapping from the | ||||
| addresses of quantum nodes to the user identity; as a result, QKD | ||||
| protocols do not disclose user identities. | ||||
| 5. QKD provides an information-theoretical way to share secret keys | ||||
| between two parties in the presence of Eve. However, this is true | between two parties in the presence of Eve. However, this is true | |||
| in theory, and there is a significant gap between theory and | in theory, and there is a significant gap between theory and | |||
| practice. By exploiting the imperfection of the detectors Eve | practice. By exploiting the imperfection of the detectors Eve | |||
| can gain information about the shared key [Xu]. To avoid such | can gain information about the shared key [Xu]. To avoid such | |||
| side-channel attacks in [Lo], the researchers provide a QKD | side-channel attacks in [Lo], the researchers provide a QKD | |||
| protocol called Measurement Device-Independent (MDI) QKD that | protocol called Measurement Device-Independent (MDI) QKD that | |||
| allows two users (a transmitter "Alice" and a receiver "Bob") to | allows two users (a transmitter "Alice" and a receiver "Bob") to | |||
| communicate with perfect security, even if the (measurement) | communicate with perfect security, even if the (measurement) | |||
| hardware they are using has been tampered with (e.g., by an | hardware they are using has been tampered with (e.g., by an | |||
| eavesdropper) and thus is not trusted. It is achieved by | eavesdropper) and thus is not trusted. It is achieved by | |||
| measuring correlations between signals from Alice and Bob rather | measuring correlations between signals from Alice and Bob rather | |||
| than the actual signals themselves. | than the actual signals themselves. | |||
| 6. QKD protocols based on Continuous Variable (CV-QKD) have recently | 5. QKD protocols based on Continuous Variable (CV-QKD) have recently | |||
| seen plenty of interest as it only requires telecommunications | seen plenty of interest as they only require telecommunications | |||
| equipment that is readily available and is also in common use | equipment that is readily available and is also in common use | |||
| industry-wide. This kind of technology is a potentially high- | industry-wide. This kind of technology is a potentially high- | |||
| performance technique for secure key distribution over limited | performance technique for secure key distribution over limited | |||
| distances. The recent demonstration of CV-QKD shows | distances. The recent demonstration of CV-QKD shows | |||
| compatibility with classical coherent detection schemes that are | compatibility with classical coherent detection schemes that are | |||
| widely used for high bandwidth classical communication systems | widely used for high bandwidth classical communication systems | |||
| [Grosshans]. Note that we still do not have a quantum repeater | ||||
| [Grosshans] Note that we still do not have a quantum repeater for | for the continuous variable systems; hence, this kind of QKD | |||
| the continuous variable systems; hence, this kind of QKD | ||||
| technologies can be used for the short distance communications or | technologies can be used for the short distance communications or | |||
| trusted relay-based QKD networks. | trusted relay-based QKD networks. | |||
| 7. Secret sharing can be used to distribute a secret key among | 6. Secret sharing can be used to distribute a secret key among | |||
| multiple nodes by letting each node know a share or a part of the | multiple nodes by letting each node know a share or a part of the | |||
| secret key, while no single node can know the entire secret key. | secret key, while no single node can know the entire secret key. | |||
| The secret key can only be re-constructed via collaboration from | The secret key can only be re-constructed via collaboration from | |||
| a sufficient number of nodes. Quantum Secret Sharing (QSS) | a sufficient number of nodes. Quantum Secret Sharing (QSS) | |||
| typically refer to the scenario: The secret key to be shared is | typically refers to the scenario: The secret key to be shared is | |||
| based on quantum states instead of classical bits. QSS enables | based on quantum states instead of classical bits. QSS enables | |||
| to split and share such quantum states among multiple nodes. | to split and share such quantum states among multiple nodes. | |||
| As a result, the Quantum Internet in Figure 2 contains quantum | As a result, the Quantum Internet in Figure 1 contains quantum | |||
| channels. And in order to support secure communication setup | channels. And in order to support secure communication setup | |||
| especially in large-scale deployment, it also requires entanglement | especially in large-scale deployment, it also requires entanglement | |||
| generation and entanglement distribution | generation and entanglement distribution | |||
| [I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup], quantum repeaters/ | [I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup], quantum repeaters/ | |||
| routers, and/or trusted QKD relays. | routers, and/or trusted QKD relays. | |||
| +---------------+ | +---------------+ | |||
| | End User | | | End User | | |||
| |(e.g., Banker) | | |(e.g., Banker) | | |||
| +---------------+ | +---------------+ | |||
| skipping to change at page 15, line 44 ¶ | skipping to change at page 13, line 30 ¶ | |||
| +-----------------+ /--------\ +-----------------+ | +-----------------+ /--------\ +-----------------+ | |||
| | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | |||
| | Source | ( Internet ) | Destination | | | Source | ( Internet ) | Destination | | |||
| | Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum | | | Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum | | |||
| | Node A | | Node B | | | Node A | | Node B | | |||
| | (e.g., Bank #1) | /--------\ | (e.g., Bank #2) | | | (e.g., Bank #1) | /--------\ | (e.g., Bank #2) | | |||
| | | ( Classical) | | | | | ( Classical) | | | |||
| | |<-->( Internet )<-->| | | | |<-->( Internet )<-->| | | |||
| +-----------------+ \--------/ +-----------------+ | +-----------------+ \--------/ +-----------------+ | |||
| Figure 2: Secure Communication Setup | Figure 1: Secure Communication Setup | |||
| 4.2. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation | 4.2. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation | |||
| Secure computation with privacy preservation refers to the following | Secure computation with privacy preservation refers to the following | |||
| scenario: | scenario: | |||
| 1. A client node with source data delegates the computation of the | 1. A client node with source data delegates the computation of the | |||
| source data to a remote computation node (i.e. a server). | source data to a remote computation node (i.e. a server). | |||
| 2. Furthermore, the client node does not want to disclose any source | 2. Furthermore, the client node does not want to disclose any source | |||
| data to the remote computation node and thus preserve the source | data to the remote computation node, which preserves the source | |||
| data privacy. | data privacy. | |||
| 3. Note that there is no assumption or guarantee that the remote | 3. Note that there is no assumption or guarantee that the remote | |||
| computation node is a trusted entity from the source data privacy | computation node is a trusted entity from the source data privacy | |||
| perspective. | perspective. | |||
| As an example illustrated in Figure 3, a terminal node such as a home | As an example illustrated in Figure 2, a terminal node can be a small | |||
| gateway has collected lots of data and needs to perform computation | quantum computer with limited computation capability compared to a | |||
| on the data. The terminal node could be a classical node without any | remote quantum computation node (e.g., a remote mainframe quantum | |||
| quantum capability, a bare-bone quantum end-node or a full-fledged | computer), but the terminal node needs to run a more computation- | |||
| quantum computer. The terminal node has insufficient computing power | intensive task (e.g., Shor's factoring algorithm). The terminal node | |||
| and needs to offload data computation to some remote nodes. Although | can create individual qubits and send them to the remote quantum | |||
| the terminal node can upload the data to the cloud to leverage cloud | computation node. Then, the remote quantum computation node can | |||
| computing without introducing local computing overhead, to upload the | entangle the qubits, calculate on them, measure them, generate | |||
| data to the cloud can cause privacy concerns. In this particular | measurement results in classical bits, and return the measurement | |||
| case, there is no privacy concern since the source data will not be | results to the terminal node. It is noted that those measurement | |||
| sent to the remote computation node which could be compromised. Many | results will look like purely random data to the remote quantum | |||
| protocols as described in [Fitzsimons] for delegated quantum | computation node because the initial states of the qubits were chosen | |||
| computing or Blind Quantum Computation (BQC) can be leveraged to | in a cryptographically secure fashion. | |||
| realize secure delegated computation and guarantee privacy | ||||
| preservation simultaneously. | ||||
| As a new client/server computation model, BQC generally enables: 1) | As a new client/server computation model, BQC generally enables: 1) | |||
| The client delegates a computation function to the server; 2) The | The client delegates a computation function to the server; 2) The | |||
| client does not send original qubits to the server, but send | client does not send original qubits to the server, but send | |||
| transformed qubits to the server; 3) The computation function is | transformed qubits to the server; 3) The computation function is | |||
| performed at the server on the transformed qubits to generate | performed at the server on the transformed qubits to generate | |||
| temporary result qubits, which could be quantum-circuit-based | temporary result qubits, which could be quantum-circuit-based | |||
| computation or measurement-based quantum computation. The server | computation or measurement-based quantum computation. The server | |||
| sends the temporary result qubits to the client; 4) The client | sends the temporary result qubits to the client; 4) The client | |||
| receives the temporary result qubits and transform them to the final | receives the temporary result qubits and transforms them to the final | |||
| result qubits. During this process, the server can not figure out | result qubits. During this process, the server can not figure out | |||
| the original qubits from the transformed qubits. Also, it will not | the original qubits from the transformed qubits. Also, it will not | |||
| take too much efforts on the client side to transform the original | take too much efforts on the client side to transform the original | |||
| qubits to the transformed qubits, or transform the temporary result | qubits to the transformed qubits, or transform the temporary result | |||
| qubits to the final result qubits. One of the very first BQC | qubits to the final result qubits. One of the very first BQC | |||
| protocols such as [Childs] follows this process, although the client | protocols such as [Childs] follows this process, although the client | |||
| needs some basic quantum features such as quantum memory, qubit | needs some basic quantum features such as quantum memory, qubit | |||
| preparation and measurement, and qubit transmission. Measurement- | preparation and measurement, and qubit transmission. Measurement- | |||
| based quantum computation is out of the scope of this document and | based quantum computation is out of the scope of this document and | |||
| more details about it can be found in [Jozsa2005]. | more details about it can be found in [Jozsa2005]. | |||
| skipping to change at page 17, line 17 ¶ | skipping to change at page 15, line 4 ¶ | |||
| transformation, while the server performs a sequence of quantum | transformation, while the server performs a sequence of quantum | |||
| logic gates. Qubits are transmitted back and forth between the | logic gates. Qubits are transmitted back and forth between the | |||
| client and the server. | client and the server. | |||
| 2. Universal BQC in [Broadbent] is a measurement-based BQC model, | 2. Universal BQC in [Broadbent] is a measurement-based BQC model, | |||
| which is based on measurement-based quantum computing leveraging | which is based on measurement-based quantum computing leveraging | |||
| entangled states. The principle in UBQC is based on the fact the | entangled states. The principle in UBQC is based on the fact the | |||
| quantum teleportation plus a rotated Bell measurement realizes a | quantum teleportation plus a rotated Bell measurement realizes a | |||
| quantum computation, which can be repeated multiple times to | quantum computation, which can be repeated multiple times to | |||
| realize a sequence of quantum computation. In this approach, the | realize a sequence of quantum computation. In this approach, the | |||
| client first prepares transformed qubits and send them to the | client first prepares transformed qubits and sends them to the | |||
| server and the server needs first to prepare entangled states | server and the server needs first to prepare entangled states | |||
| from all received qubits. Then, multiple interaction and | from all received qubits. Then, multiple interaction and | |||
| measurement rounds happen between the client and the server. For | measurement rounds happen between the client and the server. For | |||
| each round, the client computes and sends new measurement | each round, the client computes and sends new measurement | |||
| instructions or measurement adaptations to the server; then, the | instructions or measurement adaptations to the server; then, the | |||
| server performs the measurement according to the received | server performs the measurement according to the received | |||
| measurement instructions to generate measurement results (qubits | measurement instructions to generate measurement results (qubits | |||
| or in classic bits); the client receives the measurement results | or in classic bits); the client receives the measurement results | |||
| and transform them to the final results. | and transforms them to the final results. | |||
| 3. A hybrid universal BQC is proposed in [Zhang2009], where the | 3. A hybrid universal BQC is proposed in [Zhang2009], where the | |||
| server performs both quantum circuits like [Childs] and quantum | server performs both quantum circuits like [Childs] and quantum | |||
| measurements like [Broadbent] to reduce the number of required | measurements like [Broadbent] to reduce the number of required | |||
| entangled states in [Broadbent]. Also, the client is much | entangled states in [Broadbent]. Also, the client is much | |||
| simpler than the client in [Childs]. This hybrid BQC is a | simpler than the client in [Childs]. This hybrid BQC is a | |||
| combination of circuit-based BQC model and measurement-based BQC | combination of circuit-based BQC model and measurement-based BQC | |||
| model. | model. | |||
| 4. It will be ideal if the client in BQC is a purely classical | 4. It will be ideal if the client in BQC is a purely classical | |||
| client, which only needs to interact with the server using | client, which only needs to interact with the server using | |||
| classical channel and communications. [Huang] demonstrates such | classical channel and communications. [Huang] demonstrates such | |||
| an approach, where a classical client leverages two entangled | an approach, where a classical client leverages two entangled | |||
| servers to perform BQC, with the assumption that both servers can | servers to perform BQC, with the assumption that both servers | |||
| not communicate with each other; otherwise, the blindness or | cannot communicate with each other; otherwise, the blindness or | |||
| privacy of the client can not be guaranteed. The scenario as | privacy of the client cannot be guaranteed. The scenario as | |||
| demonstrated in [Huang] is essentially an example of BQC with | demonstrated in [Huang] is essentially an example of BQC with | |||
| multiple servers. | multiple servers. | |||
| 5. How to verify that the server will perform what the client | 5. How to verify that the server will perform what the client | |||
| requests or expects is an important issue in many BQC protocols, | requests or expects is an important issue in many BQC protocols, | |||
| referred to as verifiable BQC. [Fitzsimons] discusses this issue | referred to as verifiable BQC. [Fitzsimons] discusses this issue | |||
| and compares it in various BQC protocols. | and compares it in various BQC protocols. | |||
| In Figure 3, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and | In Figure 2, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and | |||
| quantum repeaters/routers for long-distance qubits transmission | quantum repeaters/routers for long-distance qubits transmission | |||
| [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. | [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. | |||
| +----------------+ /--------\ +----------------+ | +----------------+ /--------\ +-------------------+ | |||
| | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | |||
| | | ( Internet ) | Remote | | | | ( Internet ) | Remote Quantum | | |||
| | Terminal | \--------/ | Computation | | | Terminal | \--------/ | Computation | | |||
| | Node | | Node | | | Node | | Node | | |||
| | (e.g., Home | /--------\ | (e.g., QC | | | (e.g., A Small| /--------\ | (e.g., Remote | | |||
| | Gateway) | ( Classical) | in Cloud) | | | Quantum | ( Classical) | Mainframe) | | |||
| | |<-->( Internet )<-->| | | | Computer) |<-->( Internet )<-->| Quantum Computer)| | |||
| +----------------+ \--------/ +----------------+ | +----------------+ \--------/ +-------------------+ | |||
| Figure 3: Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation | Figure 2: Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation | |||
| 4.3. Distributed Quantum Computing | 4.3. Distributed Quantum Computing | |||
| There can be two types of distributed quantum computing [Denchev]: | There can be two types of distributed quantum computing [Denchev]: | |||
| 1. Leverage quantum mechanics to enhance classical distributed | 1. Leverage quantum mechanics to enhance classical distributed | |||
| computing problems. For example, entangled quantum states can be | computing. For example, entangled quantum states can be | |||
| exploited to improve leader election in classical distributed | exploited to improve leader election in classical distributed | |||
| computing, by simply measuring the entangled quantum states at | computing, by simply measuring the entangled quantum states at | |||
| each party (e.g., a node or a device) without introducing any | each party (e.g., a node or a device) without introducing any | |||
| classical communications among distributed parties [Pal]. | classical communications among distributed parties [Pal]. | |||
| Normally, pre-shared entanglement needs first be established | Normally, pre-shared entanglement needs first be established | |||
| among distributed parties, followed by LOCC operations at each | among distributed parties, followed by LOCC operations at each | |||
| party. And it generally does not need to transmit qubits among | party. And it generally does not need to transmit qubits among | |||
| distributed parties. | distributed parties. | |||
| 2. Distribute quantum computing functions to distributed quantum | 2. Distribute quantum computing functions to distributed quantum | |||
| skipping to change at page 19, line 27 ¶ | skipping to change at page 17, line 19 ¶ | |||
| Classical Internet, in the context of distributed quantum computing | Classical Internet, in the context of distributed quantum computing | |||
| ecosystem [Cuomo]. According to [Cuomo], quantum teleportation | ecosystem [Cuomo]. According to [Cuomo], quantum teleportation | |||
| enables a new communication paradigm, referred to as teledata | enables a new communication paradigm, referred to as teledata | |||
| [VanMeter2006-01], which moves quantum states among qubits to | [VanMeter2006-01], which moves quantum states among qubits to | |||
| distributed quantum computers. In addition, distributed quantum | distributed quantum computers. In addition, distributed quantum | |||
| computation also needs the capability of remotely performing quantum | computation also needs the capability of remotely performing quantum | |||
| computation on qubits on distributed quantum computers, which can be | computation on qubits on distributed quantum computers, which can be | |||
| enabled by the technique called telegate [VanMeter2006-02]. | enabled by the technique called telegate [VanMeter2006-02]. | |||
| As an example, scientists can leverage these connected NISQ computer | As an example, scientists can leverage these connected NISQ computer | |||
| to solve highly complex scientific computation problems such as | to solve highly complex scientific computation problems, such as | |||
| analysis of chemical interactions for medical drug development [Cao] | analysis of chemical interactions for medical drug development [Cao] | |||
| (see Figure 4). In this case, qubits will be transmitted among | (see Figure 3). In this case, qubits will be transmitted among | |||
| connected quantum computers via quantum channels, while classic | connected quantum computers via quantum channels, while classic | |||
| control messages will be transmitted among them via classical | control messages will be transmitted among them via classical | |||
| channels for coordination and control purpose. Another example of | channels for coordination and control purpose. Another example of | |||
| distributed quantum computing is secure Multi-Party Quantum | distributed quantum computing is secure Multi-Party Quantum | |||
| Computation (MPQC) [Crepeau], which can be regarded as a quantum | Computation (MPQC) [Crepeau], which can be regarded as a quantum | |||
| version of classical secure Multi-Party Computation (MPC). In a | version of classical secure Multi-Party Computation (MPC). In a | |||
| secure MPQC protocol, multiple participants jointly perform quantum | secure MPQC protocol, multiple participants jointly perform quantum | |||
| computation on a set of input quantum states, which are prepared and | computation on a set of input quantum states, which are prepared and | |||
| provided by different participants. One of the primary aims of the | provided by different participants. One of the primary aims of the | |||
| secure MPQC is to guarantee that each participant will not know input | secure MPQC is to guarantee that each participant will not know input | |||
| quantum states provided by other participants. Secure MPQC relies on | quantum states provided by other participants. Secure MPQC relies on | |||
| verifiable quantum secret sharing [Lipinska]. | verifiable quantum secret sharing [Lipinska]. | |||
| For the example shown in Figure 4, qubits from one NISQ computer to | For the example shown in Figure 3, qubits from one NISQ computer to | |||
| another NISQ computer are very sensitive and should not be lost. For | another NISQ computer are very sensitive and should not be lost. For | |||
| this purpose, quantum teleportation can be leveraged to teleport | this purpose, quantum teleportation can be leveraged to teleport | |||
| sensitive data qubits from one quantum computer A to another quantum | sensitive data qubits from one quantum computer A to another quantum | |||
| computer B. Note that Figure 4 does not cover measurement-based | computer B. Note that Figure 3 does not cover measurement-based | |||
| distributed quantum computing, where quantum teleportation may not be | distributed quantum computing, where quantum teleportation may not be | |||
| required. When quantum teleportation is employed, the following | required. When quantum teleportation is employed, the following | |||
| steps happen between A and B. In fact, LOCC [Chitambar] operations | steps happen between A and B. In fact, LOCC [Chitambar] operations | |||
| are conducted at the quantum computer A and B in order to achieve | are conducted at the quantum computers A and B in order to achieve | |||
| quantum teleportation as illustrated in Figure 4. | quantum teleportation as illustrated in Figure 3. | |||
| 1. The quantum computer A locally generates some sensitive data | 1. The quantum computer A locally generates some sensitive data | |||
| qubits to be teleported to the quantum computer B. | qubits to be teleported to the quantum computer B. | |||
| 2. A shared entanglement is established between the quantum computer | 2. A shared entanglement is established between the quantum computer | |||
| A and the quantum computer B (i.e., there are two entangled | A and the quantum computer B (i.e., there are two entangled | |||
| qubits: q1 at A and q2 at B). For example, the quantum computer | qubits: q1 at A and q2 at B). For example, the quantum computer | |||
| A can generate two entangled qubits (i.e., q1 and q2) and sends | A can generate two entangled qubits (i.e., q1 and q2) and sends | |||
| q2 to the quantum computer B via quantum communications. | q2 to the quantum computer B via quantum communications. | |||
| skipping to change at page 20, line 26 ¶ | skipping to change at page 18, line 23 ¶ | |||
| 4. The result from this Bell measurement will be encoded in two | 4. The result from this Bell measurement will be encoded in two | |||
| classical bits, which will be physically transmitted via a | classical bits, which will be physically transmitted via a | |||
| classical channel to the quantum computer B. | classical channel to the quantum computer B. | |||
| 5. Based on the received two classical bits, the quantum computer B | 5. Based on the received two classical bits, the quantum computer B | |||
| modifies the state of the entangled qubit q2 in the way to | modifies the state of the entangled qubit q2 in the way to | |||
| generate a new qubit identical to the sensitive data qubit at the | generate a new qubit identical to the sensitive data qubit at the | |||
| quantum computer A. | quantum computer A. | |||
| In Figure 4, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and | In Figure 3, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and | |||
| quantum repeaters/routers [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. This | quantum repeaters/routers [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. This | |||
| application scenario needs to support entanglement generation and | application scenario needs to support entanglement generation and | |||
| entanglement distribution (or quantum connection) setup | entanglement distribution (or quantum connection) setup | |||
| [I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup] in order to support | [I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup] in order to support | |||
| quantum teleportation. | quantum teleportation. | |||
| +-----------------+ | +-----------------+ | |||
| | End-User | | | End-User | | |||
| |(e.g., Scientist)| | |(e.g., Scientist)| | |||
| +-----------------+ | +-----------------+ | |||
| skipping to change at page 21, line 25 ¶ | skipping to change at page 19, line 4 ¶ | |||
| V V | V V | |||
| +----------------+ /--------\ +----------------+ | +----------------+ /--------\ +----------------+ | |||
| | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | | |--->( Quantum )--->| | | |||
| | | ( Internet ) | | | | | ( Internet ) | | | |||
| | Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum | | | Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum | | |||
| | Computer A | | Computer B | | | Computer A | | Computer B | | |||
| | (e.g., Site #1)| /--------\ | (e.g., Site #2)| | | (e.g., Site #1)| /--------\ | (e.g., Site #2)| | |||
| | | ( Classical) | | | | | ( Classical) | | | |||
| | |<-->( Internet )<-->| | | | |<-->( Internet )<-->| | | |||
| +----------------+ \--------/ +----------------+ | +----------------+ \--------/ +----------------+ | |||
| Figure 3: Distributed Quantum Computing | ||||
| Figure 4: Distributed Quantum Computing | ||||
| 5. General Requirements | 5. General Requirements | |||
| 5.1. Background | 5.1. Background | |||
| Quantum technologies are steadily evolving and improving. Therefore, | Quantum technologies are steadily evolving and improving. Therefore, | |||
| it is hard to predict the timeline and future milestones of quantum | it is hard to predict the timeline and future milestones of quantum | |||
| technologies as pointed out in [Grumbling] for quantum computing. | technologies as pointed out in [Grumbling] for quantum computing. | |||
| Currently, a NISQ computer can achieve fifty to hundreds of qubits | Currently, a NISQ computer can achieve fifty to hundreds of qubits | |||
| with some given error rate. In fact, the error rates of two-qubit | with some given error rate. In fact, the error rates of two-qubit | |||
| skipping to change at page 22, line 4 ¶ | skipping to change at page 19, line 30 ¶ | |||
| [Grumbling]. | [Grumbling]. | |||
| On the network level, six stages of Quantum Internet development are | On the network level, six stages of Quantum Internet development are | |||
| described in [Wehner] as follows: | described in [Wehner] as follows: | |||
| 1. Trusted repeater networks (Stage-1) | 1. Trusted repeater networks (Stage-1) | |||
| 2. Prepare and measure networks (Stage-2) | 2. Prepare and measure networks (Stage-2) | |||
| 3. Entanglement distribution networks (Stage-3) | 3. Entanglement distribution networks (Stage-3) | |||
| 4. Quantum memory networks (Stage-4) | 4. Quantum memory networks (Stage-4) | |||
| 5. Fault-tolerant few qubit networks (Stage-5) | 5. Fault-tolerant few qubit networks (Stage-5) | |||
| 6. Quantum computing networks (Stage-6) | 6. Quantum computing networks (Stage-6) | |||
| The first stage is simple trusted repeater networks, while the final | The first stage is simple trusted repeater networks, while the final | |||
| stage is the quantum computing networks where the full-blown Quantum | stage is the quantum computing networks where the full-blown Quantum | |||
| Internet will be achieved. Each intermediate stage brings with it | Internet will be achieved. Each intermediate stage brings with it | |||
| new functionality, new applications, and new characteristics. | new functionality, new applications, and new characteristics. | |||
| Figure 5 illustrates Quantum Internet application scenarios as | Figure 4 illustrates Quantum Internet application scenarios as | |||
| described in this document mapped to the Quantum Internet stages | described in this document mapped to the Quantum Internet stages | |||
| described in [Wehner]. For example, secure communication setup can | described in [Wehner]. For example, secure communication setup can | |||
| be supported in Stage-1, Stage-2, or Stage-3, but with different QKD | be supported in Stage-1, Stage-2, or Stage-3, but with different QKD | |||
| solutions. More specifically: | solutions. More specifically: | |||
| In Stage-1, basic QKD is possible and can be leveraged to support | In Stage-1, basic QKD is possible and can be leveraged to support | |||
| secure communication setup but trusted nodes are required to provide | secure communication setup but trusted nodes are required to provide | |||
| end-to-end security. The primary requirement is the trusted nodes. | end-to-end security. The primary requirement is the trusted nodes. | |||
| In Stage-2, the end users can prepare receive and measure the qubits. | In Stage-2, the end users can prepare and measure the qubits. In | |||
| In this stage the users can verify classical passwords without | this stage, the users can verify classical passwords without | |||
| revealing it. | revealing it. | |||
| In Stage-3, end-to-end security can be enabled based on quantum | In Stage-3, end-to-end security can be enabled based on quantum | |||
| repeaters and entanglement distribution, to support the same secure | repeaters and entanglement distribution, to support the same secure | |||
| communication setup application. The primary requirement is | communication setup application. The primary requirement is | |||
| entanglement distribution to enable long-distance QKD. | entanglement distribution to enable long-distance QKD. | |||
| In Stage-4, the quantum repeaters gain the capability of storing and | In Stage-4, the quantum repeaters gain the capability of storing and | |||
| manipulating entangled qubits in the quantum memories. Using these | manipulating entangled qubits in the quantum memories. Using these | |||
| kind of quantum networks one can run sophisticated applications like | kind of quantum networks, one can run sophisticated applications like | |||
| blind quantum computing, leader election, quantum secret sharing. | blind quantum computing, leader election, quantum secret sharing. | |||
| In Stage-5, quantum repeaters can perform error correction; hence | In Stage-5, quantum repeaters can perform error correction; hence | |||
| they can perform fault-tolerant quantum computations on the received | they can perform fault-tolerant quantum computations on the received | |||
| data. With the help of these repeaters, it is possible to run | data. With the help of these repeaters, it is possible to run | |||
| distributed quantum computing and quantum sensor applications over a | distributed quantum computing and quantum sensor applications over a | |||
| smaller number of qubits. | smaller number of qubits. | |||
| Finally, in Stage-6, distributed quantum computing relying on more | Finally, in Stage-6, distributed quantum computing relying on more | |||
| qubits can be supported. | qubits can be supported. | |||
| skipping to change at page 23, line 31 ¶ | skipping to change at page 21, line 31 ¶ | |||
| | Stage-4 | Secure/blind quantum | Quantum memory | | | Stage-4 | Secure/blind quantum | Quantum memory | | |||
| | | computing | | | | | computing | | | |||
| |---------------------------------------------------------------| | |---------------------------------------------------------------| | |||
| | Stage-5 | Higher-Accuracy Clock | Fault tolerance | | | Stage-5 | Higher-Accuracy Clock | Fault tolerance | | |||
| | | synchronization | | | | | synchronization | | | |||
| |---------------------------------------------------------------| | |---------------------------------------------------------------| | |||
| | Stage-6 | Distributed quantum | More qubits | | | Stage-6 | Distributed quantum | More qubits | | |||
| | | computing | | | | | computing | | | |||
| +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | |||
| Figure 5: Example Application Scenarios in Different Quantum | Figure 4: Example Application Scenarios in Different Quantum | |||
| Internet Stages | Internet Stages | |||
| 5.2. Requirements | 5.2. Requirements | |||
| Some general and functional requirements on the Quantum Internet from | Some general and functional requirements on the Quantum Internet from | |||
| the networking perspective, based on the above application scenarios, | the networking perspective, based on the above application scenarios, | |||
| are identified as follows: | are identified as follows: | |||
| 1. Methods for facilitating quantum applications to interact | 1. Methods for facilitating quantum applications to interact | |||
| efficiently with entangled qubits are necessary in order for them | efficiently with entangled qubits are necessary in order for them | |||
| skipping to change at page 24, line 10 ¶ | skipping to change at page 22, line 10 ¶ | |||
| 2. Quantum repeaters/routers should support robust and efficient | 2. Quantum repeaters/routers should support robust and efficient | |||
| entanglement distribution in order to extend and establish high- | entanglement distribution in order to extend and establish high- | |||
| fidelity entanglement connection between two quantum nodes. For | fidelity entanglement connection between two quantum nodes. For | |||
| achieving this, it is required to first generate an entangled | achieving this, it is required to first generate an entangled | |||
| pair on each hop of the path between these two nodes, and then | pair on each hop of the path between these two nodes, and then | |||
| perform entanglement swapping operations at each of the | perform entanglement swapping operations at each of the | |||
| intermediate nodes. | intermediate nodes. | |||
| 3. Quantum end-nodes must send additional information on classical | 3. Quantum end-nodes must send additional information on classical | |||
| channels to aid in transmission of qubits across quantum | channels to aid in transferring qubits across quantum repeaters/ | |||
| repeaters/receivers. This is because qubits are transmitted | receivers. This is because qubits are transferred individually | |||
| individually and do not have any associated packet overhead which | and do not have any associated packet header which can help in | |||
| can help in transmission of the qubit. Any extra information to | transferring the qubit. Any extra information to aid in routing, | |||
| aid in routing, identification, etc., of the qubit(s) must be | identification, etc., of the qubit(s) must be sent via classical | |||
| sent via classical channels. | channels. | |||
| 4. Methods for managing and controlling the Quantum Internet | 4. Methods for managing and controlling the Quantum Internet | |||
| including quantum nodes and their quantum resources are | including quantum nodes and their quantum resources are | |||
| necessary. The resources of a quantum node may include quantum | necessary. The resources of a quantum node may include quantum | |||
| memory, quantum channels, qubits, established quantum | memory, quantum channels, qubits, established quantum | |||
| connections, etc. Such management methods can be used to monitor | connections, etc. Such management methods can be used to monitor | |||
| network status of the Quantum Internet, diagnose and identify | network status of the Quantum Internet, diagnose and identify | |||
| potential issues (e.g. quantum connections), and configure | potential issues (e.g. quantum connections), and configure | |||
| quantum nodes with new actions and/or policies (e.g. to perform a | quantum nodes with new actions and/or policies (e.g. to perform a | |||
| new entanglement swapping operation). New management information | new entanglement swapping operation). New management information | |||
| model for the Quantum Internet may need to be developed. | model for the Quantum Internet may need to be developed. | |||
| 6. Conclusion | 6. Conclusion | |||
| This document provides an overview of some expected application | This document provides an overview of some expected application | |||
| categories for the Quantum Internet, and then details selected | categories for the Quantum Internet, and then details selected | |||
| application scenarios. The applications are first grouped by their | application scenarios. The applications are first grouped by their | |||
| usage which is a natural and easy to understand classification | usage which is a natural and easy to understand classification | |||
| scheme. The applications are also classified as either control plane | scheme. This set of applications may, of course, naturally expand | |||
| or data plane functionality as typical for the Classical Internet. | over time as the Quantum Internet matures. Finally, some general | |||
| This set of applications may, of course, naturally expand over time | requirements for the Quantum Internet are also provided. | |||
| as the Quantum Internet matures. Finally, some general requirements | ||||
| for the Quantum Internet are also provided. | ||||
| This document can also serve as an introductory text to readers | This document can also serve as an introductory text to readers | |||
| interested in learning about the practical uses of the Quantum | interested in learning about the practical uses of the Quantum | |||
| Internet. Finally, it is hoped that this document will help guide | Internet. Finally, it is hoped that this document will help guide | |||
| further research and development of the Quantum Internet | further research and development of the Quantum Internet | |||
| functionality required to implement the application scenarios | functionality required to implement the application scenarios | |||
| described herein. | described herein. | |||
| 7. IANA Considerations | 7. IANA Considerations | |||
| skipping to change at page 35, line 10 ¶ | skipping to change at page 33, line 10 ¶ | |||
| Juniper Networks | Juniper Networks | |||
| Boeing Avenue 240 | Boeing Avenue 240 | |||
| Schiphol-Rijk | Schiphol-Rijk | |||
| Email: maelmans@juniper.net | Email: maelmans@juniper.net | |||
| Kaushik Chakraborty | Kaushik Chakraborty | |||
| The University of Edinburgh | The University of Edinburgh | |||
| 10 Crichton Street | 10 Crichton Street | |||
| Edinburgh | Edinburgh | |||
| EH8 9AB, Scotland | EH8 9AB, Scotland | |||
| United Kingdom | United Kingdom | |||
| Email: kchakrab@exseed.ed.ac.uk | Email: kchakrab@exseed.edu.ac.uk | |||
| End of changes. 75 change blocks. | ||||
| 296 lines changed or deleted | 199 lines changed or added | |||
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